Attitudes Towards Minorities With Mental Illness Social Work Essay

Attitudes Towards Minorities With Mental Illness Social Work Essay Members of ethnic minority groups are faced with several barriers that prevent them from adequately participating in treatment for mental illness. Mental illnesses are commonly overlooked and untreated due to the negative connotations that surround them. Minorities with lower socioeconomic status frequently have poor physical health, which creates vulnerability to mental illness pooled with a lack of affordable treatment and accessible resources. Stigma along with various beliefs and attitudes generates discrimination and social distancing behaviors towards persons with mental illness, as a result of the direct affects of ignorance, negative attitudes, and common beliefs. This often results in discrepancy and underutilization of service amongst minority populations. Mental Illness is a disorder of the brain that affects a persons mood, thinking and behavior (Cohen 2002, NIMH). Mental disorders are all around us, however, in many cases some are overlooked. According to the National Institute of Mental Health an estimated 26.2 percent of Americans, ages 18 and older, suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder each year; an estimated 45 percent of those with any diagnosable mental disorder meet criteria for 2 or more disorders (NIMH 2010). Serious mental illnesses interrupt a persons ability to carry out essential aspects of daily life. There are several different types of mental illnesses some of which are more severe than others, however, the most common disorders are depression, anxiety disorders, panic attacks, bipolar disorders, phobias, eating disorders, substance abuse, dementia, and schizophrenia (Kobau 2008). Causes of mental illness range from inherited traits and genetics to biological, environmental and social cultural factors to life experiences, such as excessive stress. When mental illnesses are left untreated, it can cause emotional, physical and behavioral health problems (Cohen, 2002; Whitley, 2010). However, due to stigmas and various negative connotations surrounding mental illness people often try to reject, ignore or self medicate the illness in a state of denial (Cohen, 2002). Moreover, poverty is an important moderator of the correlation between serious mental illness and social problems (Draine, 2002). African Americans as well as minorities are more prone to suffer from significant and persistent disparities within the mental health system (Whitley, 2010). This research paper will examine racial differences of both men and women suffering from common mental illness disorders and their usage of mental health services associated with stigmas. Minorities suffering from menta l illness are often less likely to access service from a mental health professional, and will more often receive poor quality care or drop out upon admittance (Whitley, 2010). Stigma and Discrimination The term stigma originally derives from the ancient Greek practice where criminals were branded, leaving them with a mark referred to as a stigma that allowed them to be easily identified (Gibson 2008). Persons with a stigma were usually rejected from society, viewed as outcast, and devalued by society similar to persons suffering from mental illness. Due to the stigma attached to persons tormented by mental illness, it forms a lack of personal contact with persons suffering from these disorders; resulting in a lack of knowledge, which in turn leads to prejudices, negative attitudes and stereotypes towards them (Alegria 2002, Guimà ³n 2010). Stigmatization of persons suffering with mental illness stems from socio-cultural, ethnic, religious, and economic factors (Guimà ³n, 2010). Stereotype-based negative attitudes and prejudices towards mental illness develop early in life, originating from cultural, historical and media depictions (Sartorius Schulze, 2005; Bauman, 2007; Guimà ³ n 2010). Prejudices, discrimination and social distance are frequent consequences of the stigmatization that follows mental illness. The effect of stigma permeates through many aspects of the lives mentally ill patients, resulting in discrimination by means of denial of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. For example, adequate housing, employment, education, health, freedom of opinion and expression can all be affected either directly or indirectly triggered by mental illness (Guimà ³n, 2010). Due to expectations of stable norms and values that shape todays society social distance becomes a direct effect of stigma related to mental illness (Baumann, 2007). When severe mental illness results in unusual or abnormal behavior the desire for separation and social distance becomes essential. Several social psychiatrists propose that society itself is sick and that stigmas and the diagnostic process are simply attempts to label individuals who try to free themselves from societ ys general organization (Guimà ³n, 2010). Stigma associated with mental illness exists across the general population. However, they hold acute significance amongst minority populations. Studies have found racial and ethnic differences regarding stigmatizing attitudes surrounding people with mental illness, which often influences discrimination and negative attitudes toward seeking treatment for mental illnesses (Alegria 2002, Faye 2005, Bolden 2005, Anglin, 2006). Minorities endure double stigma as a result of discriminatory practices along with having to deal with the burden of living with a mental disorder (Faye 2005, Shim 2009). Double stigma is created by ethnic minority group membership, which confronts the individual with significant barriers (Faye 2005). Researchers have theorized that African Americans, Caribbean blacks and persons from other ethnic minority groups hold more negative attitudes than Caucasians (Anglin, 2006; Shim, 2009; Whitley 2010). Stigmatizing attitudes in most cases acts as a barrier and deters i ndividuals from seeking care in order to avoid the label and shame of mental illness that result when people are associated with mental health care (Gary, 2005; Anglin, 2006). Quality of Treatment Care Furthermore, stigmatizing views are not strictly limited to the general population or in the context of social relationships with friends, relatives or employers; stereotypes also occur in the contact with general health professionals (Guimà ³n 2010, Ross Goldner 2009). A vast number of general medical nurses share negative attitudes and commonly held stereotypical beliefs of mental illness. Studies have shown that mental health psychiatry patients needs are not viewed as a priority by general medical nurses (Ross Goldner 2009). Thus they have more constructive things to handle such as looking after someone who is really sick, and more deserving while mentally ill patients are simply taking up space preventing a patient in need from a receiving a bed (Ross Goldner 2009). General nurses often stigmatize and present negative attitudes towards mental health psychiatry patients due to a lack of knowledge in addition to media generated and historical misrepresentations of persons with mental illness as violent and bizarre (Gary 2005; Ross Goldner, 2009; Guimà ³n, 2010). Affordable treatment and accessible resources is also a discrepancy when it comes to seeking psychiatric services. Minorities are at risk for not receiving adequate mental health care, given the lower socioeconomic status (Gary 2005). They often lack health insurance and are not capable to pay for services (Roberts 2008). This creates a circle of poverty is created when serious mental disorders go untreated resulting in individuals becoming unable to fully participate in education and work opportunities (Roberts 2008). Family resources are often depleted due to poverty, drastically effecting families struggling to provide care, and costly treatment for their loved ones (Gary 2005). Minorities with mental illness are less likely to receive treatment for mental illness. However, when they do receive treatment the care is more likely to be of poor quality (Shim 2009). Because African Americans and minorities seek treatment during a crisis the care they receive is normally crisis oriented, episodic and less likely to enhance long term recovery.(Bolden 2008) Social position plays major role in both mental illness and service use (Alegria 2002, Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Living in poor socioeconomic conditions encourage suffering distress and a greater risk of becoming diagnosed with a mental illness, with a lower chance of obtaining proper treatment (Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Minorities are overrepresented in underserved communities often lacking insurance or the ability to pay for services (Alegria 2002, Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Therefore, due to African Americans as well as other minorities previous experience with lower quality mental healthcare due to r acist experiences they are often discouraged from seeking care (Algeria 2002). Treatment Views and Outcomes In order to avoid anticipated discrimination and prejudice due to their condition, many people suffering with mental illness fail to seek treatment for early symptoms. One in four Americans will be affected by a mental health disorder in their lives. However, two out of three persons will seek help from a professional (Roberts, 2008). Minorities often seek late treatment during a crisis at the emergency room or from a primary care physician opposed to a psychiatrist or other specialty mental health professionals (Shim 2009, Bolden 2005). Studies have shown that specifically African Americans and minorities underutilize voluntary professional mental health services, driven by the uncertainty of the effectiveness of treatment (Anglin 2008, Jagedeo 2009), viewing the mental health clinic as a place to be fearfully avoided rather than a provider of service (Whitley 2010). Several researchers have hypothesized that certain demographics are more likely to feel uncomfortable speaking with a mental health professionals. Research has shown that a possible explanation for the differences of minorities seeking and receiving treatment for mental illness is a consequence of mistrust among patients (Alegria 2002). It has been argued that African American patients believe that their mental health experience of anguish is a religious or moral issue opposed to a psychiatric concern (Whitley 2010). African Americans prefer to receive informal counseling from church officials and ministers, which in turn prolongs delays in clinical treatment (Bolden 2005, Anglin 2008, Whitley 2010). Deidre M. Anglins research also suggests that African Americans are more likely to seek services from extended family networks. Anglin stresses the importance of family involvement and religion in African American Culture, which correlates to psychiatric rehabilitation related to stigma and family involvement, where families often discourage persons suffering with mental illness from seeking treatment (Whitley 2010). In contrast to the stigma associated with mental illness researchers have found that African Americans are more likely to believe that metal health professionals or a spiritual leader can help individuals suffering from mental disorders, however, studies consistently show that African Americans under utilize voluntary mental health services(Anglin 2008). Research has found that African Americans along with other minorities often believe that mental illness conditions will improve on their own, or that the condition is not serious (Anglin 2008, Roberts 2008, Shim 2009). Research has suggested that minorities believe that mild symptoms of mental illness are normal experiences, due to socioeconomic problems and daily experiences within their community (Roberts 2008). African Americans are more likely to delay seeking help until they experience symptoms or during a crisis, and are severely ill during the time of utilization which determines the length of the stay (Bolden 2005, Anglin 200 8). Furthermore, when individuals decide to seek treatment, many of them neglect the prescribed course of therapy, while others terminate mental health services all together (Faye 2005). Research suggests that once contact with mental healthcare professionals is made positive pretreatment attitudes diminish (Angling 2008, Shim 2009). African Americans and minorities have cultural mistrust when it comes to the mental healthcare system, leading to increased dropout and decreased client satisfaction surrounding treatment (Anglin 2008). Negative attitudes and stigma also advocate a strong association between mental healthcare and treatment dropout (Jagedeo 2009). Conclusion Racial and ethnic minorities beliefs regarding the natural course and the seriousness of mental illnesses relate to the perceived treatment effectiveness and common beliefs. Stigmatization, negative attitudes and discrimination attached to mental illnesses often lead to the under treatment of mental disorders. Minorities frequently believe that mental illness can be treated and possibly improve. However, there is inconsistency between the beliefs of actual need for treatment and utilization. Together, these realities support the hypothesis that minorities with mental illness are often less likely to access service from a mental health professional. In sum, increased awareness regarding the benefits of treatment can increase efforts, as well as beliefs hat mental health treatment is necessary.

Titration Research Paper

Quantitative Chemistry –Titration Determination of the Molarity of an Unknown Solution through Acid-Base Titration Technique 1. Introduction 1. 1 Aim The aim of this investigation was to determine the precise molarity of two (NaOH(aq)) sodium hydroxide solutions produced at the beginning of the experiment through the acid-base titration technique. 1. 2 Theoretical Background Titration is a method commonly used in laboratory investigations to carry out chemical analysis. The most frequent chemical analysis performed through titration is when determining the exact concentration of a solution of unknown molarity.This technique is usually used in redox and acid-base reactions. Redox reaction is when reduction – lost of oxygen – of one of the substances present in a reaction occurs and subsequently oxidation – gain of oxygen – of the second substance in the same reaction takes place. On the other hand, acid-base reaction is when a solution of known molar ity2 and volume present in a conical flask is titrated against a solution of unknown molarity in a burette until neutralization is reached. As I have shown in eq. 1, in this investigation it was an acid reacting with a base, hence, an acid-base titration. q. 1 – Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium Chloride + water HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) In this investigation the latter reaction was carried out, having hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) as the analyte in the conical flask and sodium hydroxide (NaOH(aq)) as the titrant in the burette. The analyte was also designated as the standard solution of the experiment, since it has known values of volume and concentration, the figures that allowed the molarity of the titrant to be calculated.In an acid-base titration, the titrant in the burette is gradually added to the analyte in the conical flask until neutralisation happens, thus, the reaction reaches completion. When neutralisation happens the substances present at the end point are stoichiometrically equivalent, in other words, the value of moles of NaOH(aq) present at the end of the reaction is equivalent to the value of moles of HCl(aq) in the same solution as shown on eq. 2 below. eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 1 : 1The end point of a titration reaction can be obtained through two major methods. Firstly is by using a pH meter which works by introducing electrodes to the flask containing the standard solution. Once in the conical flask, these electrodes would measure the H+ ions present in the conical flask since they change as the titrant in added, until neutralisation happens, as a result, determining the pH of the solution. Knowing that neutralization happens when the pH of the solution is equal to 7, consequently, at the end point the pH meter will read 7.The second method would be using a colour indicator this could be paper or in liquid form. In an acid-base titration it would be convenient to use an indicator in liq uid. For instance, phenolphthalein is a recurrent indicator in this type of reaction which is colourless in an acidic solution and turns pink when in a basic solution. This indicator works by adding a few drops into the conical flask containing the acidic analyte and titrate the basic titrant drop-wise until colour of the solution formed in the conical flask changes to pink.All things considered, the colour indicator was used in this experiment since it is the most accessible method to measure the end point of an acid-base titration. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the unknown molarity of NaOH(aq) from acid-base titration. The preparation of NaOH(aq) was done by the students performing this investigation. The students were allocated mass of NaOH(s) that was diluted in water and hence obtained the solution NaOH(aq), in this case the titrant. However, the analyte was not produced by the student but provided.Therefore, after the titration was performed as explained o n the previous paragraphs, the data needed to calculate the molarity of NaOH(aq) was obtained. 1. 3 Preliminary calculations 1. 3. 1 The first important value to be obtained from the investigation was the volume of NaOH(aq) used. This was done by the following equation: eq. 3 – for 1st solution produced Average volume volume of 2nd trial – volume of 1st trial2= V1 eq. 4 – for 2nd solution produced Average volume volume of 2nd trial – volume of 1st trial2= V2 1. 3. The next step when determining the molarity of NaOH(aq) was to calculate the moles of HCl(aq) by using the volume HCl(aq) provided on the lab scripts and the molarity obtained from the bottle of HCl(aq) used during the investigation. The eq. 5 and eq. 6 below was used to calculate: eq. 5 – moles1 = V1 (dm3) ? molarity (M) eq. 6 – moles2 = V2 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 1. 3. 3 The third important equation, for both solutions, worth noting are the number of moles of NaOH(aq) present in the reaction. This was obtained by using ratio of the moles of NaOH(aq) : HCl(aq) used during the investigation.This can be recalled by eq. 2 eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 1 : 1 1. 3. 4 Hence, moles of both solutions of NaOH(aq) will be the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq) since the mole ratio is 1:1. That is for every one mole of HCl(aq) reacted, one mole of NaOH(aq) would have reacted with to neutralise the acid. Hence, the following equation will be used: eq. 7 – moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) 1. 3. 5 Lastly, the equation of the molarity of NaOH(aq): eq. 8 – Molarity for solution 1 =moles1volume1 q. 9 – Molarity for solution 1 =moles1volume1 2. Investigation 2. 1 Apparatus Due to the nature of the investigation very technical and precise laboratory apparatus were used to ensure best accuracy in results. For instance, in order to measure the acid, a pipette of exactly 20ml was used. This was very useful since it helped in diminishing the c hance of measuring either more or less of acid needed for the investigation. Similarly, the burette used to titrate the NaOH(aq) had 50 ml of volume this allowed enough volume of NaOH(aq) to be titrated, since the exact volume to neutralise the acid was unknown.Another precise apparatus was the magnetic stirrer. Being magnetic and electric it allowed the solution in the flask to be mixed continuously and vigorously and hence allow the exact volume of acid to be obtained. The other apparatus that were also used in this experiment were the solutions – titrant and analyte – themselves. The sodium hydroxide was given in pellets whereas the hydrochloric acid was provided in liquid form with the molarity of 1M. Moreover, volumetric flasks of volume of 100ml were also provided. This were used to produce the NaOH(aq) solutions, hence the reason for allowing 100ml of NaOH(aq) to be produced.In its turn, conical flasks of 250 ml of volume were also provided. As mentioned on the introductory paragraphs, the analyte is deposited in the conical flask. In this case, a volume of 250 ml was allowed to host the acid and the titrated base giving enough space for the solution to be formed. Lastly, phenolphthalein indicator was provided together with it a pair of gloves to avoid accidental stain on students’ hands. The apparatus setting is shown below in fig. 1. fig. 1 – diagram of apparatus used in the investigation 2. 2 Safety In terms of safety, the investigation involved very strong solutions.For instance, the sodium hydroxide pellets, although they were in solid form, after dissolving in water it could cause severe burns if put in direct contact with skin or eyes. Hence, as a pre-cautionary measure some gloves as well as goggles were provided to students. It was important to point out that if in case of accident in eyes, swallow or skin contact it should be rinsed vigorously in abundant water and seek medical attention. As for the hydrochloric aci d, it was a very acidic solution that if swallowed it would be very harmful.Similarly to sodium hydroxide it could cause severe burns if in contact with eyes or skin. For prevention of any accident, lab coats, goggles and gloves were provided. However, in case of accident, medical advice had to be immediately provided to student. 2. 3 Procedure This experiment, it involved two different solutions of NaOH(aq), for this reason, it was allowed to students to work in pairs in order to save time, since only 3 hours were allowed to perform investigation. The first part of the investigation was to prepare two NaOH(aq) solutions. Hence, each student was allocated a mass of NaOH(s) to measure.In this investigation performed, 2g and 5g of NaOH(s) pellets were meant to be weight using a 2 decimal place weight balance. However, since relatively large pellets were provided and not powder, it made not possible to measure the exact mass intended, instead, 2. 07g and 5. 19g were weighed. After weig hting the masses of NaOH(s), the pellets weighting 2. 07g and 5. 19g each mass was put in a separate 250ml volumetric flask, water was added to the flask and then shook in order to let the pellets dissolve to for a solution A and solution B of NaOH(aq) respectively. Secondly, the apparatus shown in fig. was as shown in the figure. Thirdly, 20ml of HCl(aq) was measured as accurate as possible by using a pipette if 20 ml of volume. This HCl(aq) measured was put in a 250ml conical flask. After preparing the acid, in this case, the analyte, 7 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added to the conical flask where the analyte was added. The conical flask was places on the magnetic stirrer as shown in fig. 1. The forth part of the investigation was when a 50ml burette was filled with solution A. Following this, the magnetic stirrer was switched on, stirring the solution present in the conical flask moderately.Hence, using the tap present on the burette, the solution A was added to the con ical flasks in a drop-wise fashion until one drop was added to turn the solution pink permanently. When the solution in the conical flask turned permanently pink, the end point of the titration had been reached, thus, the volume of solution A used from the burette was recorded. Then, the conical flask was rinsed in abundant water. The sixth part of the experiment was to repeat third to fifth part of the experiment to obtain a second reading of the volume used to titrate solution A.After the sixth part was finalised, second part to sixth part of the procedure was repeated, however, this time solution B was used in the place of solution A. By the end of the experiment, two values of volume of solution A and two values of volume of solution B titrated against the acid were obtained and recorded in table 1. 3. Treatment of Raw Data 3. 1 Results table | Solution A| Solution B| Molarity of HCl(aq)| 1 moldm-3| 1 moldm-3| Volume of HCl(aq)| 20 ml| 20 ml| | Indicator used| phenolphtlalein| | Volume of NaOH(aq) | Trial I| 41. 1 ml| 16. 8 ml| Trial II| 38. 4 ml| 17. 1 ml| Average volume of NaOH(aq) used| 39. 8 ml| 17. 0 ml| | Observations| *Calculations*Average mass of NaOH(aq) used was calculated using the following formula: Trial I + Trial II2| * Not the mass expected was weighted – mass for solution A -0. 1g difference; mass for solution B +0. 7g difference. * Bubbles given out when dissolving the NaOH(s) * Volumetric felt warm when mixing the NaOH(s) with water * Some residous seen in the acid * Conical flask was rinsed with tap water * Some acid was spilled on the table, i. e. not all 20 ml was put in the conical flask| . Treatment of Results 4. 1 Processing raw data 4. 1. 1 – Balanced equation The balanced equation of the reaction taken place in this investigation was reviwed in the introductory paragraphs, eq. 2 below: eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 eq. 2 show that one mole of hydrochloric acid reacts with exact ly 1 mole of sodium hydroxide to form salt – sodium chloride and water, hence, the mole ratio between the substances is 1:1. 4. 1. – moles of HCl(aq) for solution A Again, the formula used to calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid for solution A has been reviewed in the beginning of the investigative report. Therefore, in order to find the moles of HCl(aq) eq. 5 was used: eq. 5 – moles1 = V1 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 0. 020 dm3 ? 1 moldm-3 = 0. 020 mol moles1 = ? V1 (dm3) = 20. 0 ml 20. 0ml 1000 = 0. 020 dm3 molarity (M) = 1 moldm-3 4. 1. 3 – moles of HCl(aq) for solution B the formula used to calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid for solution B was the same as the formula calculated for solution A.Therefore, in order to find the moles of HCl(aq) eq. 6 was used: eq. 6 – moles2 = V2 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 0. 020 dm3 ? 1 moldm-3 = 0. 020 mol moles2 = ? V2 (dm3) = 0. 020 ml 20. 0ml 1000 = 0. 020 dm3 molarity (M) = 1 moldm-3 4. 1. 4 – moles of NaO H(aq) for solution A From the molar ratio between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide it was seen that one mole of acid reacted completely with one mole of the base. This is shown on eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 nd hence, eq. 7 moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) it is just to say that the number of moles of NaOH(aq) produced in this reaction was 0. 020 mol the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq). 4. 1. 5 – moles of NaOH(aq) for solution B Again in the solution B, the molar ratio between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide is the same as the above solution. Hence: eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 and thus and hence, eq. 7 moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) t is just to say that the number of moles of NaOH(aq) produced in this reaction was 0. 020 mol the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq). 4. 1. 6 – molarity of NaOH(aq) for solution A The molarity of NaOH(aq) from solution A was calculated using e q. 8 reviewed at the introductory paragraph of this investigative report. Hence: eq. 8 – Molarity for solution A = moles1volume1 0. 020 mol0. 0398 dm3 = 0. 5 moldm-3 moles1 = 0. 020 mol volume1 = 39. 8ml 39. 8ml 1000 = 0. 0398 dm3 4. 1. 7 – molarity of NaOH(aq) for solution B The molarity of NaOH(aq) from solution B was calculated using eq. also reviewed at the introductory paragraph of this investigative report. Hence: eq. 9 – Molarity for solution B = moles1volume1 0. 020 mol0. 0170 dm3 = 1. 17 moldm-3 moles1 = 0. 020 mol volume1 = 17. 0ml 17. 0ml 1000 = 0. 0170 dm3 5. Discussion of Results The results obtained from the calculations carried out in this investigative report were somehow near the actual value expected to get. For instance, the molarity of solution A was 0. 5 moldm-3 and the assigned molarity was also 0. 5 moldm-3. However, for the molarity of solution B, the value was a slightly offset, the actual value assigned was 1. moldm-3 and from the above calculation the molarity of the solution was 1. 17 moldm-3. Analysing the data from table. 1 it is possible that the difference on the molarity of solution B is due to many errors that occurred during the experiment. The main source of error in this experiment was human error. For instance, when the volume for solution B was being poured into the conical flask, some of the content was spilled on the desk. This means that not all volume of acid was reacted with the base, as intended to be at the beginning of the experiment.This type of error mentioned on the above paragraph can be minimized have having more practice with using pipette. Another way is by utilizing sophisticated pipettes that will not let the content out unless the person utilizing chooses to do so by pressing a button. 6. Conclusion In this experiment, the unknown molarities of two solution of sodium hydroxide were to be investigating. The aim was to produce two solutions of NaOH(aq) and titrate them against an acid. The production of NaOH(aq) was successful which gave the opportunity to titrate against the acid.However the molarities calculated were very similar to the molarities intended. This suggests that the investigation was successful, although it was not fully successful due to errors that occurred during the investigation. Nevertheless, the results can be used as the actual molarity of the solution taken into account that the initial masses were not as well as the masses intended to be weight. 7. References * Jones, L; Atkins, P. (2000). Chemistry’s accounting: Reaction Stoichiometry. Chemistry: Molecules, Matter and Change. 4th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p160-162 * Clark, J. (2000).Basic Calculations Involving solutions. Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry. Pearson Education Limited. p61 – 66 * LoveToKnow. (1996-2011). Titration – Definiton of Titration. Available: http://www. yourdictionary. com/titration. Last accessed 14th Nov 2011. * ChemBuddy. (2005). Concentration lectures – definition. Available  : http://www. chembuddy. com/? left=concentration&right=concentration. Last accessed 15th Nov 2011. * Harold, C. (2011-2012). Experiment 2  : Acid-Base Titration. CHE-00027/29 General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory Handbook. Keele University. p17-20 ——————————————– 1 ]. Concentration – number of molecules present in a specific volume of a solution [ 2 ]. Molarity – concentration of a solute per mole; also known as molar concentration [ 3 ]. Analyte – the solution with known values of its volume and concentration [ 4 ]. Titrant – the solution with unknown values of volume and concentration [ 5 ]. End point – the stage at which enough titrant has been added to neutralise the analyte [ 6 ]. pH meter – a laboratory electronic equipment used to measure the pH of a solution [ 7 ]. pH – the negative logarithm value of H+ present in a solution, determining the acidity of the solution

Racism and Slavery in America Essay

The origin of race and slavery in North America is often viewed chronologically. Historians are divided on their stance as to whether or not racism may be considered as the root cause of slavery. While some agree on this, others argue that slavery in fact had nothing to do with the origins of racism and that in retrospect, slavery when legalized actually facilitated racism. However, the question is not one of precedence because essentially the social differences including rituals, religion, and language along with inequalities of power between the Europeans and Africans together gave way to racism and slavery. Hence it would be wrong to divide North America in the seventeenth century into the two binaries of race and slavery and consider these realms as mutually exclusive. It was not just racism that made Africans slaves or slavery that made Europeans racist. Rather, the interaction of differences in race and power structure created a realm where each overlaps and influences one other. The two arguments presented by scholars are true yet they are contradictory if viewed from the perspective of causality. This suggests that for both the standpoints to hold true, the occurrence of racism and slavery had to be during the same period in history, not preceding one another. Thus, this paper explores the idea that slavery and racism cannot be seen in a relationship of causality. Instead, slavery and racism are iterative terms, i. e. they are the products of a large number of small unconscious acts and interactive social engagements. As Canessa asserts that â€Å"each iteration reinforces or undermines a particular identity, but any single act is unlikely to have a major effect†, it suggests that neither racism or slavery preceded each other, but rather they developed and influenced each other as a result of the interactions between Europeans and Africans. The concept of iteration can be understood by exploring the two different positions that various scholars hold. The first stance that racism preceded slavery, demands an explanation of the word ‘race’ itself. The definition of race includes the biological description of one’s phenotype and their genetic set up. This description often leads to the physiognomic differences which generalize the behavior and social standing of people. Gleaning from this idea of race, it is not a surprise to find that the English described Negros as ‘savages’ and ‘barbaric’ using their ethnocentric lens of what it meant to be ‘civilized’. They used the criteria of color, religion, rituals and economic and social status to demarcate the racial identities as superior or inferior. Carl N. Delger questions the view of scholars who believe that racism was a result of legalized slavery by asserting that even if one believes that â€Å"slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as a part of its essence, the same (racial) discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it. † Carl Delger’s argument explicitly states that the racist attitude of Whites was the root cause for the origination of slavery. He says that â€Å"long before slavery or black labor became an important part of the southern economy, a special and inferior status had been worked out for the Negroes who came to the English colonies. Unquestionably it was a demand for labor which dragged the Negro to American shores, but the status which he acquired here cannot be explained by reference to that economic motive. † He claims that although slavery was legalized half a century after the and terms like ‘slave’ were not used to define Negros, their treatment wasn’t any better. Many scholars like Carl N.  Degler argue that the Whites were inherently racist and practiced racism on everyone who belonged to a different race. This trait is evident because before the Whites had black slaves, they practiced slavery on Indigenous Indians and on white indentured labor that included Irish, Polish, Jews, and Germans. Thus, â€Å"an inferior and onerous service was established for the Indian makes it plausible to suppose that a similar status would be reserved for the equally different and pagan Negro. † I agree with his assumption because it suggests that racism was not something that was new to English when they brought the Negros. However, once the Whites enslaved the Africans, they grew less severe towards the white servants. The evidence for his argument comes from a variety of sources. Degler provides the example where the differences in status between an English servant and Negro were reflected not only at a public level but in the private lives of Negros as well. Degler asserts that not only the company (some European trading company) distrusted the Negros but some whites even held on to Negros as slaves for life as early 1630s and their slavery was inheritable. Thus, Carl Degler argues that all the statutes that were enforced after 1660s, were nothing but a result of the racist ideologies that forced the English to make such brutal and discriminatory laws. Moreover, historians like Winthrop D. Jordan assert that the heathenism of Negros was an important component which invited a racially discriminatory reaction from the English. He asserts that besides the physiological differences like color of the skin, factors like cultural practices and religious beliefs constituted the notions of racism. He explains that the English believed that, â€Å"to be Christian was to be civilized rather than barbarous, English rather than African, white rather than black†¦By this time, â€Å"Christianity had somehow become intimately and explicitly linked with â€Å"complexion†. However, heathenism alone could not have been the sole cause for enslavement, because it was easily terminated as soon as the Negro was converted into a Christian. Hence, Winthrop asserts that it was, â€Å"virtually every quality in the Negro (that) invited pejorative feelings. Along with heathenism, the language, gestures and eating habits of Negros were strikingly different from the English, and contributed towards the notion of ‘savages’ and ‘barbaric’. However, there is opposition to the correlation between the racial discrimination and slavery. Carl Delger and Winthrop are in complete contrast with the ideologies that Kathleen Brown, Edmund Morgan and Oscar and Mary F. Handlin believe in. Although the latter do not deny that racism was a part of American society in the 17th century, they attribute different reasons for its presence. Instead of attributing the ‘inherent racism’ as the cause of slavery, they believe that the motivation for economic prosperity led Whites to become racist, stringent and discriminatory towards the enslaved Africans. Although the former group of scholars asserts that, â€Å"the development of a form of slavery, which left a caste in its wake, cannot be attributed to pressure from increasing numbers of blacks, or even from an insistent demand for cheap labor†, the latter group justifies the very statement as truth. The reason for the increased discrimination and control comes from the fact that unlike before, the Europeans grew more than ever ambitious with Africa as a trading partner which would be used to amass great wealth. Kathleen Brown, who argues that slavery preceded racism, asserts that there is a fundamental problem in viewing the idea of ‘race’ in the context of just appearances. She asserts that often historians perceive â€Å"race as a biological fact rather than as an ongoing historical and cultural construction †¦ When legal, literary, and mercantile discourses of race are examined along with actual practices of coerced labor, the relationship between slavery and racism becomes much more complicated, defying our efforts to designate one as a cause of the other. † Brown attaches the concept of historical construction to define race in order to undo the myth of causality which states that racism preceded slavery. Her stance is agreeable because even if one considers Whites to be innately racist, one cannot deny that there could be more motivation and incentives, apart from racism, to practice slavery. Moreover, a racial identity, according to Kathleen Brown and Winthrop Jordon, is created from factors like socio-economic structures and not just phenotype. Thus racism was not the root cause of slavery. Hence the racial discrimination of the Negros and their consequential enslavement was merely a ‘means’ to achieve the ‘end’ of White objectives of economic growth was possible by enlisting more productive labor. This assumption can be verified because slavery in America did not begin until the end of seventeenth century when in fact, the Africans were brought as early as 1619. Edmund Morgan explains that the reason behind this delay in enslaving Africans, was the â€Å"high mortality among immigrants to Virginia† This made the white indentured slaves more advantageous as compared to black slave labor because they were less expensive with low mortality rate. According to Oscar and Mary F. Handlin, the black slaves were in fact undesired by the colonists. The costs of hiring Black slaves were higher because they were unskilled and ran the risks of mortality, escape and rebellion. This ideology clearly reflects that the motive of the colonist was only to maximize their profits and grow more as a powerful entity by effectively controlling the colonized. Hence, they were able to maximize productivity successfully by keeping whites as servants. The need for black slaves grew much later and racism was born out of legalizing slavery. The racist and discriminatory mentality that developed is evident in the laws that the English established after 1660s. These laws were the methods and ways to control the blacks and subjugate them to a lower social status. The 1668 statute was an important event in the creation of a distinctive legal meaning for Negro in America. This law took away the freedom of every ‘black’ slave by subjecting them to life-long slave tenure. Kathleen Brown explains that this law was especially discriminatory for women because all black women were asked to pay the taxes, irrespective of their status as free or enslaved. The consequence of the law created social power structures and racial identities. The free African men found it more desirable to marry white women in order to escape tax liability of their wives and daughters, and in turn, gain a status quo equal to whites. As a result a new racial demarcation was established. In contrast to English women, African women were presumed capable of and naturally suited to strenuous field work. This not only lowered the status of Negros, but also set an exclusive definition of what it meant to be white, reflective of their power and status. Racialization is evidenced in many other laws that were established in the 1660s stipulating a similar idea. The statute of 1662, made a bold attempt to naturalize the condition of slavery by making it heritable and embedding in it a concept of race . This law made the paternity of a child born from enslaved women to be irrelevant, in turn leaving the enslaved women as a â€Å"productive and reproductive property† of their masters. This also ensured the availability of slaves, as the enslaved women could only give birth to slaves. Along with this, many laws subjected the slaves to lifetime bondage by utilizing religion. One could view this law as a representation of the innately racist idea that Negros were heathen and needed Christianity to become civilized. However this law can also be perceived as an opportunity through which the Whites used the concept of ‘religion’ to control and produce more slave population. The law passed in 1667, legalized the meaning of Christianity and stated that baptism cannot be used as a way to free oneself from slavery. The Christian commission declared that, â€Å"the conferring of baptisme doth not alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom. † This law demarcated Christians from non-Christians and distinguished ‘slaves’ from ‘servants’. Kathleen Brown holds the colonist responsible to create a division of race by incorporating slavery. She asserts that, â€Å"they created a legal discourse of slavery rooted in sexual, social, and economic lives of African laborers and effectively naturalized the condition of slavery by connecting it to a concept of race. The arguments by Kathleen Brown, Edmund Morgan and Oscar and Mary F. Handlin state that the colonists established the concept of race by legalizing slavery. Although neither side presents a view that is wrong, they are only partially correct. The problem is in the assumption that the authors make in forming these arguments. Their arguments are reflective of a desire to ‘fit’ the hi story of North America into a system of causality where either racism preceded slavery or vice versa. In history, one cannot deny the occurrence of events but their interpretations, meanings and the inferences drawn from them can differ drastically. Likewise, although no scholar denies that racism and slavery existed in the 17th century America, nonetheless, the debate revolves around the issue of precedence of the two. In reality, the history of North America is a complex structure which cannot be divided into these two binaries but rather should be seen as the point of intersection the two realms of racism and the laws that the Whites enforced are superimposed on each other. The diagram below is a graphical attempt to illustrate the idea better. It is almost impossible to define one as a cause of another and the thus the only way to understand the complex social and economic structure of North America is to interpret it as an era where the simultaneity of racial ideology and slavery induced through decree existed. Thus, white supremacy was not simply a summary of color prejudices; it was also a set of political programs, differing according to the social position of their proponents. While on one hand, the established statute manipulated power structures to establish racial identities, on the other hand Barbara Fields asserts that â€Å"race became the ideological medium through which people posed and apprehended basic questions of power and dominance, sovereignty and citizenship, justice and right. †. The two components of racism and economic prosperity interacted in a way where they meshed together to give rise to slavery. Hence, there is no way to validate the precedence of one over the other when in fact they developed simultaneously and had a continuous influence on each other together.

Exercise in Using the Correct Forms of Irregular Verbs

Exercise in Using the Correct Forms of Irregular Verbs This exercise will give you practice in using the correct forms of irregular verbs. Before attempting the exercise, you may find it helpful to review these two articles: Introduction to Irregular VerbsPrincipal Parts of Irregular Verbs Exercise Complete each sentence below with the appropriate present, past, or past-participle form of the irregular verb in italics. When youre done, compare your answers with those below. Uncle Bert told me he had _____ (sell) his car for one dollar to a needy family.No one answered when Freddie _____ (ring) the doorbell.We nearly _____ (freeze) our toes off in a bedroom that wasnt heated.Jessica suddenly remembered that a week ago she had _____ (lend) her brother a hundred dollars.My sister left the birthday party early because she had _____ (drink) too much Coca Cola and made herself sick.Last Sunday morning we discovered that the old boiler had _____ (spring) a leak.John went to the blackboard and _____ (draw) a picture of the playground.Dont call the world dirty because you _____ (forget) to clean your glasses.Jobie had _____ (string) a clothesline from the top of the trailer to the woodshed eaves.The group had _____ (begin) to split up into cliques and factions.Buddy had never _____ (ride) in a limousine before.Habit is a cable; we _____ (weave) a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it. (Horace Mann)The paper reported that a major earthquake had __ ___ (shake) the interior of Mexico, killing thousands. When we were five years old, Mike and I solemnly _____ (swear) to remain friends forever.Moira had _____ (mean) to send her father a birthday card, but as usual she forgot.The force of the shock from the explosion _____ (break) every window in the old school building.Uncle Bert had _____ (go) to the post office at lunchtime but never came back.Trying to be good Samaritans had _____ (bring) us nothing but trouble.The student insisted that someone had _____ (steal) his sunglasses, but everyone could see that they were still sitting on top of his head.Walt Disney claimed that he loved Mickey Mouse more than any woman he had ever _____ (know). Answers   Uncle Bert told me he had  sold  his car for one dollar to a needy family.No one answered when Freddie  rang  the doorbell.We nearly  froze  our toes off in a bedroom that wasnt heated.Jessica suddenly remembered that a week ago she had  lent  her brother a hundred dollars.My sister left the birthday party early because she had  drunk  too much Coca Cola and made herself sick.Last Sunday morning we discovered that the old boiler had  sprung  a leak.John went to the blackboard and  drew  a picture of the playground.Dont call the world dirty because you  forgot  to clean your glasses.Jobie had  strung  a clothesline from the top of the trailer to the woodshed eaves.The group had  begun  to split up into cliques and factions.Buddy had never  ridden  in a limousine before.Habit is a cable; we  weave  a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it. (Horace Mann)The paper reported that a major earthquake had  shaken  the interior of Mexico, killing thousands.When we were five years old, Mike and I solemnly  swore  to remain friends forever. Moira had  meant  to send her father a birthday card, but as  usual  she forgot.The force of the shock from the explosion  broke  every window in the old school building.Uncle Bert had  gone  to the post office at lunchtime but never came back.Trying to be good Samaritans had  brought  us nothing but trouble.The student insisted that someone had  stolen  his sunglasses, but everyone could see that they were still sitting on top of his head.Walt Disney claimed that he loved Mickey Mouse more than any woman he had ever  known

There is More to Amir than Being a Decorated Marine Veteran

There is More to Amir than Being a Decorated Marine Veteran Hashtag: #FreeAmirNow Imprisoned for Bravery and Intellectual Capacity There is more to Amir Hekmati’s arrest and imprisonment in Iran than being a decorated United States Marine veteran. In fact, the main reason for Amir’s 2011 arrest, imprisonment, and death sentence in early 2012 was his intellect and participation in the development of Kuma Reality Games as culture and language consultant. Amir Hekmati completed his high school studies in 2001 and since then participated in several educational and training programs offered by the U.S. military. He participated in the Naval Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps in 2001 and later attends the School of Infantry at Camp Pendleton, California. His intelligence, bravery, good conduct, and participation in Operation Iraqi Freedom earned him several awards and decorations, opportunity to study Arabic at the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, and later honorably discharged as a sergeant in 2005. In 2006, Amir’s experience as a translator in Iraq allowed him to establish Lucid Linguistic LLC and acquire Arabic and Persian translation contracts from U.S. military. He later got involved in different translation projects for DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) and language-learning video game (Kuma Reality Games) for the U.S. Department of Defense. Amir was about to start an economics degree at the University of Michigan when he was arrested and detained for espionage. You may be interested in: Moral Failure in Academic Institutions Yasar Kemal Is a Master of Word Torture Is Never Justified The Misdemeanors of Well-Educated People in Public Office Who and What Deserve Respect? Why Iran Think Amir Is Spying for CIA There is nothing special about Amir’s enthusiasm for education and specialist training including his seemingly extraordinary intelligence, courage, and integrity. The reason is that Amir’s father (Ali Hekmati), before brain cancer diagnosis, was a college professor at Mott Community College, Flint, Michigan. His sister remembered Amir as an energetic young man who loves sports  and was curious about culture and languages. Despite being a natural born American with Iranian descent, Amir is fluent in Arabic and spent most of his military service as a linguist and translator. Iran’s Revolutionary Court labeled Amir as â€Å"Corrupt on Earth† and â€Å"An Enemy of God† for allegedly spying and helping the United States undermine Iran’s integrity. The basis for such claim is Amir’s alleged intelligence training in 2001, direct participation in the development of MITRE Corporation’s two-way translation system and design of the language–learning aspects of Kuma Reality Games that are sponsored by the U.S. Department of Defense. The first one is certainly baseless but the rest are facts that are enough to convince Iranian authorities of espionage. Iran is historically hostile to insulting and malevolent activities such as Salman Rushdie’s â€Å"Satanic Verses†, American government’s arrogance and consistent insulting remarks on Iran such as â€Å"terrorist allies†, â€Å"an axis of evil†, and â€Å"sponsor of global terror†, and death sentence for a 30-year old man who posted a religiously offensive remarks on Facebook. Amir did nothing similar, but being an Iranian-American, a Middle Eastern culture, and language expert, and a favored contractor of U.S. military projects visiting relatives in Iran made him a credible spy in the imaginations of Iranian authorities. Amir’s education, military experience and recognitions, expertise, and chosen line of work are difficult to ignore particularly to people who are exceedingly sensitive and hostile to change and spread of democratic values.

Teenage Suicide & Homicide Trends Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Teenage Suicide & Homicide Trends - Essay Example s are the victims) is very likely to lead to a severe disruption of the person’s psychosomatic balance (if able to survive from the relevant attack). On the other hand, there are data that lead to the assumption that race can be a decisive criterion for the criminal behaviour against juveniles. The views of the theory do not seem to agree totally on such an aspect, however it would be rather difficult to formulate a precise assumption since the identification of the exact reasons of a specific criminal behaviour can just be assumed (as already explained above). A series of issues like the personal experiences and stress can severely affect human behaviour and in these terms the criminal behaviour against juveniles could not be considered as having a particular cause. However, the weakness of juveniles to respond to the attack (psychological or physical) is regarded as a common reason for the development of criminal behaviour against them. In the case of suicide, it is also this weakness of juveniles to respond to the pressure of a particular difficulty. The statistics involving in the criminal behaviour against juveniles are indicative of the extension of the problem. More specifically, in accordance with a series of statistics published by the Youth Violence Research Bulletin (2004) ‘between 1981 and 1998, 20,775 juveniles ages 7–17 committed suicide in the United States—nearly as many as were homicide or cancer victims; males were the victims in 78% of these juvenile suicides; over the same period, the suicide rate for American Indian juveniles was far higher than for any other race’. Between 1980 and 2000 52% of juvenile victims were black and 46% white. The rest were American Indians, Alaska Native, Asian and Pacific Islander. (Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 2004) Suicide is the second-leading cause of death for American Indian and Alaska Native youth of 15 -24 years old with such prevailing risk factors as depression and substance abuse. (Youth

Liberation.The Declaration of Independence of the United States of Essay

Liberation.The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America - Essay Example It is one of the most influential documents in the history. So many other countries and organizations have tried to create documents with similar sentence structure and tone as in this document. This document has played a very important part in the history of the United States. This view influenced Abraham Lincoln to such an extent that he considered the Declaration to be the very foundation of his political philosophy. It was this document that explained the significance of the liberation of the United States. There are a number of facts presented in this document that prove why this liberation was extremely necessary (Kelly, N/A). From the overall tone of this document, it can be inferred that this document is persuasive. A persuasive essay is written in an indirect tone, i.e., the main purpose of the document is not disclosed until the very end of the document. In case of a persuasive essay, the document provides facts and evidences that create the context of the main theme of the document. Such facts and evidences influence the reader to accept the core message of the document. Thus, the initial part of the document and a significant part of it lead to the main idea of the document which is provided in the very end. This document is drafted in such a manner that it persuades its readers that the liberation of the United States is highly significant for the betterment of the people of the United States. The initial part of the document simply describes the reasons why the colonies wanted to be separated from the rule of England. The writer starts the document with a very wide scope involving the rules of nature which are highly significant as compared to the insignificant rules created by the man himself. The writer provides the reader with the fact that God created all men as equals and gave them the ability to think to decide what is best for them. â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness†. This sentence is considered to be one of the best-known sentences in the English language because of the ambit of argument it puts forth. Jefferson provided factual evidence in order to make the people realize the importance of the independence. It was the evidential appeal that was used to make this document one of the most influential documents. The facts provided in this document have been presented in such a manner that they are bound to be effectual. For example; Jefferson initially admits that changing long established Governments should not be changed for causes that are not material, however he later provides that, if the Government does not vary its behavior and tries to use its power against the will of the people being governed repeatedly, it becomes the right and duty of the people being governed to remove the Government and acquire new guards to ensure the s ecurity of their future (Selzer, 2004). After the initial argument, Jefferson provides a list of facts which constitutes a significant part of the document. This list of facts includes certain evidences that cannot be falsified and this only adds to the effectiveness of this document. Some of the facts that he included in his list were regarding the steps that could have been taken by the Government for the betterment of the people but they were not taken. For example; according to Jefferson, the King refused his assent to laws that were necessary for the public good, he has forbidden the governors to pass laws of immediate importance unless his assent is obtained and he neglects to attend to those matters. Jefferson also presented that the King has dissolved the Representative