Healthy Lifestyles and Ageing

Introduction Ageing is a biological process that one cannot avoid; it is often related to diseases. A healthy lifestyle helps a person to live healthy even in old age. A healthy lifestyle is a way of living that tries to eliminate occurrence of a disease as well as reducing the risk of dying. It involves social, mental and physical health.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Healthy Lifestyles and Ageing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There is thus a relationship between ageing and lifestyle. Lifestyle refers to choices that one makes including diet, physical exercises, smoking and alcohol intake. A healthy lifestyle makes a person to enjoy his life and avoid health complications. This article will discuss the correlation between a lifestyle and the quality of life that a person lives as he/she grows old. Factors that Affect Ageing Ageing is determined by social lifestyle of a person; this comes as a result of ones experiences and environmental interaction in which one is exposed to. Several theories have been developed to explain the ageing process: activity theory, disengagement theory, social cognitive theory among others. Biologically, ageing is caused by the destruction of cells, â€Å"metabolic stress, oxidative stress and inflammation† (Rahelu, 2009, p. 232). Depression contributes much in ageing. People with depressed mood indirectly quicken their ageing. Depression may be caused by an unfavorable environment. A depressed person is likely to engage in unhealthy lifestyle such as smoking, alcohol abuse, less physical exercises which will likely result to development obesity. Smoking of cigarettes and taking of alcohol are associated with many diseases some of which include cancer and diabetes. Most chronic diseases are attracted to people with depressed moods (Gool et al., 2007). Social differences are related to the level of exercise engagement. From a research carried out to s upport ecological theory, it was seen that women who earned a lot of money engaged more in physical exercises while those with high level of education engaged less in physical exercises. In men, money and level of education did not affect the level of physical exercise. Among those who engaged in physical exercises, there were few blacks compared to whites (Grzywacz, 2001). Experience determines the social approach to life. In young unmarried relationships, love is not much a commitment like in older people. How we live our lives is also determined by other factors, such as race, gender, ethnicity and environment. For example, some people marry early in life while others marry late. According to a psychologist Daniel Levinson, transition begins when one gets into adulthood. Moving away from parent’s residence marks a significant point of one’s life. At around the age of 40 years, there is the midlife transition which is the second stage. In many people, it is character ized by midlife crisis. This is a stage where individuals feel that they have not made it in life according to the goals they had set for themselves. The stage is characterized with stress and this can have negative effects on the individual. The crisis can also be due to many responsibilities that a person gets, such as taking care of the children and the parents at the same time (Society, n.d.).Advertising Looking for essay on aging? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Theories of Ageing Activity Theory Activity theory bases its argument on activity as a person continues to age. To have a healthy ageing process, one must continue doing many activities that he/she did while he/she was young. Alternatively, one can substitute these roles so as to maintain high body activity. Activity theory argues that people who are active even in their old age live a more satisfying life than those who do not engage themselves in any activity. M any people who retire and become idle tend to get health problems compared to those who are involved in some activity (Bohl, 2010). The inactivity state can be caused by disease, environmnent, retirement and dependency on the children or other people. There are also old people with sound health but they tend to be inactive. This is why this theory is opposed because even old people without any problem tend to remain inactive. They are said to be self imposed activity limitation which is â€Å"an incremental process of self determined, self initiated, and self reinforced constraints on physical, mental or social actions by a person who has control over a situation and the capacity of performing an action† (Guo Philips, 2010, p. 358). From a study, it was observed that older people who lived in isolation were at a higher risk of dying (Grzywacz, 2001). This necessitated the need for the elderly people to be involved in various activities. Social networks have been associated w ith positive effects on the elderly people making them to live longer. People who have remained active in their old age live longer than those who remain inactive (Grzywacz, 2001). Activity theory has an implication in healthy lifestyle because research proves that activities are physical exercises and they help to improve the quality of life. Disengagement Theory According to disengagement theory by Cummings and Henry in 1961, as people get old, they tend to stop many activities that they used to engage in. The theory argues that old people cannot have the same desires as they used to have when they were young. Older people stop working; engage in less volunteer work, and less spouse hobbies. Activities such as going to swim are left for the younger people. The society also separates the aged from the rest of the society. The old are taken to nursing homes and they are not given opportunities in employment. Old people in the world represent about 7% population which is more than 45 3 million people (Society, n.d.).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Healthy Lifestyles and Ageing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This theory was challenged because it was only effective when the society isolated the old people and prevented them from performing their duties. It was disapproved because research showed that most of the old people enjoyed being part of activities which are carried out in the society. It showed that it helped majority of those people who were involved in activities. A research revealed that there were a fewer number of deaths in those people who did volunteer work than those who did not. Old people who live with their families have higher life expectancy than those who live in isolation. Involvement in social work of an old person develops the social ability. (Hinterlong, 2006) People who engage in learning activities have been seen to have lower number of visits to the hospitals. E cological Theory of Ageing This theory explains that the ability of a person to cope with ageing depends more on his/her environment as well as the inner strength. There are environmental factors that are related with ageing: â€Å"interpersonal, psychological, familial, social network, community, institutional, societal and cultural as well as physical, ecological and historical† (Bandura, 1998, p., 29). An Unfavorable environment does not encourage personal growth and can impair the functioning of a person’s body. This is influenced by the habitat in which he/she lives. The environment tends to determine the â€Å"social distance, intimacy, privacy, and other interpersonal processes† (Bandura, 1998, p. 30). An unfavorable environment leads a person to neglect him/herself in many ways such as the diet he/she takes and engaging in physical exercises. Ecological theory is applicable in ones lifestyle because the environment determines the kind of lifestyle that a person lives. An environment can highly determine many physical exercises and the type of diet and other behaviors such as smoking. Social Cognitive Theory This theory explains that each person gets some patterns of behavior which are more determined by the inside person other than the environment. It upholds that people are responsible for their own behavior because, they are responsible for their motivation, behavior and development which are closely related to each other. These behavioral patterns outcomes are not molded by the environment in which a person lives. A person is supposed to modify the environment and make it favorable. The environment includes social and physical environments.Advertising Looking for essay on aging? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The social environment is made up of the family, friends and people of the same age group. The physical environment refers to the place where one stays and the characteristics such as temperature, humidity, and the food a person eats. The environment is used to determine a person’s behavior in certain circumstances. In this theory, mental perception of environment affects a person’s behavior. The environment and behavior affects each other. The theory explains how behaviors are coordinated in a person. They can be acquired through observation. When one acquires the skills to perform an action he/she is known to have behavioral capability. This theory also considers the expectations which are results that a particular behavior brings. A rewarding behavior is likely to be reinforced, while a punishing behavior is eliminated. A person can also regulate his/her behaviors by having self control. There is also an emotional way that individuals behave to handle difficult emot ional situations. This is used to know the best way to cope with difficulties (Twente, 2010). Social cognitive theory is applicable because a person’s experience highly determines what kind of lifestyle they lead. Healthy habits such as engaging in physical exercises, encouraging happy moods and eating healthy diet result in a healthy lifestyle. It creates a good basis of research since ageing is determined by long term behaviors. Importance of Healthy nutrition and Physical Exercises Taking a diet with a lot of vegetables, little salt, saturated fat and wine and engaging in physical exercises are a good way of increasing life expectancy. This kind of diet is beneficial because it eliminates cholesterol and lowers the blood pressure. Physical exercise and healthy nutrition reduces the risk of obesity. Excessive weight is related to complications such as, â€Å" high blood pressure, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, obstructive sleep apnea, depression and osteoarthritis † (ADAM, 2010, p. 1). Physical exercise is also important in that it helps to keep healthy and strong bones. In adulthood, men and women reach their peak bone mass by but it starts wearing out when one starts ageing. Women usually lose bone mass at a higher rate than men during menopause at the rate of 1-2%. Physical exercises such as running, jogging and cycling have been known to increase bone mass while preventing them from wearing out. Physical exercises also reduce the risks of osteoporosis because it increases the strength of muscles, synchronization, flexibility and stability. Sufficient intake of calcium and vitamin D are also important in strengthening bones. It is therefore important for old people to get outside and have frequent exposure to sunshine other than remaining indoors throughout the day. This reduces the incidences of Vitamin D deficiency. Those who have vitamin D deficiency can take vitamin D supplements. Strong bones reduce the risk of bone fractures. F ruits and vegetables help to maintain the bones in a healthy condition. Enough intake of vitamin A helps in normal growth of bones. Older people have a challenge of being able to take food efficiently. Majority of old people live on drugs and this may cause poor health of their teeth. If the teeth are affected, a person’s ability to chew and taste the food decreases (Rahelu, 2009). Older people’s stomachs tend to accommodate small quantities of food which may be insufficient. They also have increased cases of constipation especially if one does not include fruits and vegetables in the diet (Davies, 2011). Lack of strong teeth can determine the type of food a certain person is able to eat and may force him/her to eat. Healthy diet promotes healthy skin (Rahelu, 2009). Mental health is enhanced by physical activities. It is more appropriate to engage in physical exercises than to use drugs for mental wellbeing. Social prescribing is helpful in maintaining mental health. It creates opportunities for people to engage in arts, creativity, physical exercises and adventures as well as learning new skills. When the mind is involved, it hardly gets depressed (Davies, 2011); â€Å"social support reduces vulnerability to stress† (Bandura, 1998, p. 5). Healthy lifestyle increases the life expectancy of a person. Cigarette smoking reduces life expectancy but there are notable advantages of stopping to smoke cigarettes because it lowers the risks of occurrence of diseases which are caused by cigarette smoking e. g cancer. Lifestyle drugs are taken by people to increase the value of life. The drugs are meant to enhance good appearance, physical and mental ability. They are not taken because a person is ailing from any disease. This is the reason why many physicians are faced with many challenging situations when healthy people demand for lifestyle drugs; which may have a negative effect on their health. Lifestyle drugs are of two types: â€Å"Drugs appr oved for a specific lifestyle indication and drugs approved for specific indications but used for other purposes† (Harth, Seikowsky, Hermes, 2009, p. 14). Old people tend to use them so as to appear younger. A healthy lifestyle helps men to maintain high levels of testosterone hormone even in their old age. From a research which was based on men’s behaviors of smoking, diet and physical exercises there was a strong relationship of lifestyle and levels of testosterone. Those who had higher scores of lifestyle, i. e. had not smoked, engaged in physical exercises and were consistently taking healthy diets were found to have higher levels of testosterone (Yeap et al., 2009). Healthy lifestyle involves healthy diet, engaging in physical exercises and social and psychological health. Research on healthy lifestyle has shown many benefits. Encouraging people to live on healthy diet and engage on physical exercise has improved the quality of lives in many people. Physical activ ities have also been beneficial because they prevent depression and loneliness increasing the social ability of individuals. Social factors such as staying with the family can influence the quality of life and the economic status in ageing, the effects of lifestyle drugs can be done. Abstaining from alcohol and cigarette smoking have shown a significant relationship with the quality of life led by old people. The age of giving birth in women is also crucial in determining the lifestyle of a woman. Other Factors that affect a Healthy lifestyle A healthy lifestyle is determined by the friends that one has. Peer influence is one of the major reasons why young people engage in alcoholism taking and cigarette smoking. Many social groups tend to have people with common behaviors. Cigarette smokers and excessive alcoholics are at higher risks of depression (Gool et al., 2007). In women early motherhood has been associated with a decrease in life expectancy in many cases. Girls who give bir th in their teenage mostly have lower social economic status which makes them have an unhealthy lifestyle. Their physical health is usually poorer and there is a higher rate of mortality. To start with early mothers get mentally affected because they get so much duties to perform which are beyond their strength. They may drop out of school or have a lower perfomance in education compared to others. When their education is affected, the consequences are likely to be carried on to adulthood, because they do not get well paying jobs whereas they have the responsibility of taking care of the children. This causes depression which makes them vulnerable to many health complications (Henretta, Grundy, Okell, Wadsworth, 2008). Low social economic status cause people to take unhealthy diets, low physical activity and to engage in health deteriorating behaviors such as excessive alcoholism and cigarette smoking. These makes them prone to other diseases which reduce their quality of life in o ld age and low life expectancy. From a reseach which was done on twins with different social economicc levels, it was revealed that white blood cell telomere was short in those of lower social economic groups. Lower social economic people were engaged in smoking, perfomed less physical exercises and majority were overweight (Cherkas et al., 2006). Conclusion Promotion of health programs is the key factor to help in extension of life expectancy. Healthy lifestyle such as having adequate physical exercise and balanced diet, avoiding alcohol and cigarettes prevents occurrence of many diseases and thus increases the quality of life and life expectancy of life. Nurses and healthcare providers should maximize education practices to people so as to deal with the increased cases of diseases in old people. Teaching them on healthy lifestyle is invaluable and can highly reduce the intake of drugs. More research could be done to determine how diet, lifestyle and ageing process relate to each o ther. This could determine the effectiveness of nutritional supplements. References ADAM. (2010). Obesity. Web. Bandura, A. (1998). Health Promotion from the Perspective of Social Cognitive Theory. Web. Bohl, W. B. (2010). Investigating Elder self neglect. Web. Cherkas et al. (2006). The effects of social economic status on biological ageing as measured by white blood cell telomere. Ageing Cell. 5.5, 361-365. From EBSCO host. Print. Davies, N. (2011). Promoting healthy ageing: the importance of lifestyle. Nursing Standard.25.19, 43-50. From EBSCO host. Print. Gool et al. (2007). Associations Between Lifestyle and Depressed Mood:Longitudinal Results From the Maastricht Aging. American Journal of Public Health. 97. 5., 887-894. From EBSCO host. Print. Grzywacz, J. G. (2001). Social Inequalities and exercise during adulthood:Toward an ecological perspective. Jornal of Health and social behavior. 42.2, 202. From EBSCO host. Print. Guo, G., Philips, L. R. (2010). Conceptualization and N ursing Implications of self Imposed Activity Limitation among community dwelling elders. Public Health Nursing. 27.4, 353-361. From EBSCO host. Print. Harth, W., Seikowsky, K., Hermes, B. (2009). Lifestyle Drugs in old age. Gerontology. 55, 13-25. From EBSCO host. Print. Henretta, Grundy, Okell, Wadsworth. (2008). Early Motherhood and Mental heaalth in midlife. Ageing Mental Health. 12.5, 605-614. From EBSCO host. Print. Hinterlong, J. E. (2006). The Effects of Civic Engagement of Current and Future Cohorts of Older Adults. Winter. 30. 4, 10-17. From EBSCO host. Print. Society. (n. d). Aging and Society. Web. Twente. (2010). Social Cognitive Theory. University of Twente. Web. Yeap et al. (2009). Healthier Lifestyle predicts higher Circulating testosterone in older men:the Health in Men Study. Clinical Endocrinology. 70, 455-463. From EBSCO host. Print. This essay on Healthy Lifestyles and Ageing was written and submitted by user Desiree Holder to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

In the context of mental health, how has the Essays

In the context of mental health, how has the Essays In the context of mental health, how has the Essay In the context of mental health, how has the Essay In the context of mental wellness, how has the construct of patient liberty developed and to what extent will the current reform of the Mental Health Act impact this rule? It is a cardinal rule of medical jurisprudence and moralss that before handling a competent patient a medical professional should acquire her or his consent. [ 1 ] Therefore, it is the patient, instead than the physicians, who has the concluding say in relation to the advancement of a certain intervention. This rule which allows the patient to take a certain medical intervention is known as the â€Å"principle of autonomy† . This principle involves complex issues which include: the definition of consent, whether consent demand to be â€Å"informed† and fortunes in which it is allowable to handle patients without their consent. The rule of liberty raises farther jobs in relation to the application of mental wellness jurisprudence, because the jurisprudence permits the detainment and intervention of people who are simply, even if they are competent. [ 2 ] Thus, it seems to be incongruent with the cardinal rule of medical jurisprudence. First, the paper shall discourse the development of the rule of patient liberty and consent in English jurisprudence. Then it will see how the Mental Health Act 1983 addresses these issues. Then it shall turn to how the reforms will impact this rule. Consent serves double intents: it tends to avoid the happening of the peculiar physical hurt the hazard of which the patient is non prepared to take and ensures that a patient’s liberty and self-respect is respected. [ 3 ] Furthermore, it besides seems to hold been established that non-consensual operation on a competent patient could be construed as anguish, or inhuman or degrading intervention which would be a dispute of Article 3 of the European Convention of Human Rights. [ 4 ] By and large, a wellness professional who deliberately or recklessly touches a patient without her or his consent commits a offense ( a battery ) and a civil wrong ( trespass to the individual and/or carelessness [ 5 ] However, such actions of a wellness professional would non be improper, if it fits within one of the legal â€Å"flack jacket† as delineated by the Court of Appeal inRe W[ 6 ] . The flak jackets would protect a wellness professional in three fortunes: ( I ) when the professional obtains the consent of the patient ; ( two ) when the professional obtains the consent of another individual who is authorised to accept on the patient’s behalf ; and ( three ) when the professional’s actions were necessary. If a medical practician can non set up any of the three defense mechanisms so he could incur condemnable and civil liabilities. It seems to hold been established that personal liberty or the right to self finding is of paramount in English medical juris prudence ; and therefore when a competent patient makes it clear that he does non wish to have intervention which is, objectively, in his medical best involvement, it would be improper for a medical practician to administrate that intervention. [ 7 ] Although great weight has been placed on the importance of the right to bodily unity, it has been established that a patient is non entitled to have intervention which he or she wishes. [ 8 ] Thus, it follows that personal liberty is a negative right, i.e. , a right to except a medical professional from interfering with a person’s bodily unity, but it can non make a positive duty on medical professionals to supply a peculiar intervention. In order to appreciate the development of patient liberty, it is submitted that a general treatment in relation to the jurisprudence about consent would be apposite. When a patient is a competent grownup, merely that individual can accept. In English medical jurisprudence, there is no philosophy of consent by placeholder ; therefore, it is non possible for a married woman to give consent on behalf of her hubby. However, it seems to hold been established that a patient can give progress directive which is a papers puting out the interventions that a patient would or would non accept to in the event that he or she becomes unqualified. [ 9 ] The jurisprudence on the medical intervention of incompetent grownups is surprisingly restrictive. Due to the absence of a philosophy of placeholder, a relation can non give consent on an unqualified patient’s behalf. However, a medical practician can supply the intervention which is in the best involvement of the patient. The Mental Capacity Act ( MCA ) 2005 provides certain state of affairss where a individual is entitle do give consent on behalf of person else, viz. , when a competent grownup creates a n digesting power of lawyer which enables its beneficiary to do determinations on that adult’s behalf when he becomes unqualified, and allows the tribunal to name a deputy to take determinations on an unqualified adult’s behalf. For consent to be lawfully effectual, it must be a echt understanding by the patient to have the intervention. Therefore, it is necessary for a medical professional to show that ( I ) the individual is competent ; ( two ) the individual is sufficiently informed ; and ( three ) the individual is non capable to coercion or undue influence. [ 10 ] Section 1 ( 2 ) of The MCA 2005 has established that a medical professional should assume that a patient is competent, unless there is grounds that he or she is non. [ 11 ] If a instance comes to tribunal, the load is on the physician to show that the patient lacks capacity on a balance of chances. [ 12 ] Harmonizing to subdivision 2 ( 1 ) of the MCA, incompetency of a patient is demonstrated by the fact that a patient is unable to do a determination for himself or herself. Inability to do a determination has been defined as inability to understand the information relevant to the determination, retain that information, to utilize that information to make a determination, or to pass on his determination [ 13 ] . The MCA 2005, nevertheless, emphasises that a patient should non be treated as missing capacity â€Å"unless all practical stairss to assist him â€Å"reach capacity has been taken without success† . English jurisprudence does non recognize the philosophy of â€Å"informed consent† which provides that a patient can merely supply effectual consent if given the necessary and relevant information to do a proper determination [ 14 ] . It is sufficient if a patient understands â€Å"in wide footings the nature of the process which is intended.† [ 15 ] If a patient can set up that he or she did non consent to a process because he or she did so merely on the footing of false or unequal information ; [ 16 ] or that she did consent to the process but the medical professional was negligent in non informing her of all the hazards [ 17 ] , so the consent would be negated and the medical professional could liable in condemnable jurisprudence and civil jurisprudence. Finally, even if the first two conditions are satisfied the consent will non be lawfully effectual if it was non given freely. It is rare for this issue to originate and it is hard to show that an evident consent was merely given under coercion or undue influence. [ 18 ] It should be noted that consent does non hold to be in any peculiar signifier as there is no legal differentiation between a written or unwritten consent. Although in the instance of major surgery it is common to inquire a patient to subscribe a consent signifier. [ 19 ] Furthermore, consent is a uninterrupted construct, and therefore a medical professional should obtain consent for each medical process, instead than rely on the fact that the patient has consented to similar processs in the yesteryear. [ 20 ] Finally, consent can be express or implied. For illustration, when a proposes giving an injection and the patient says nil but rolls up her arm and presents her arm to the physician, it would represent an implie d consent because the patient’s behavior would bespeak that she has consented even though she had non expressly said â€Å"yes† . It is submitted that despite the accent on the jurisprudence associating to consent of a patient, the fact that Mental Health Act 1983 allows medical professionals to administrate intervention to mentally ill patients without the consent of a competent person is a cause of concern. The two authoritative justifications for the mandatory detainment of people with mental ailment wellness are by mention to aparens patriaepower in the State to guarantee that people are treated for unwellness when necessary and /or the constabulary power of the State to command people doing injury to others. [ 21 ] Theparens patriaejustification operates on the footing that the State has the right, as parents of the citizens, to take action for the benefit of the citizens, even though the citizens may non comprehend a demand for aid or wish to reject it. However, John Stuart Mill’s articulate logical thinking inEssay on Liberty( 1859 ) [ 22 ] has proven to be a major obstruction for the application of this rule because of his entry that State intervention where the action was designed to â€Å"prevent injury to others† would represent an indefensible intervention on autonomy. Harmonizing to him, the best involvements of the citizen would merely enforce an duty on the State to inform, advice or even remonstrate, but it could non warrant any positive invasion of single freedom by the State. The alternate justification, viz. the constabulary power, states that that State is entitled to interfere with individual’s autonomy where that single nowadays a danger ( or possibly injur y ) to others, and therefore protect others from dangers. In other words, this rule seems to forbid the violation of single autonomy if that is necessary to protect the â€Å"general public† from unsafe mentally sick people or for the protection of the single themselves. It is submitted that these justifications seem incompatible to the jurisprudence and the law that have been developed to guarantee that a patient’s freedom to take medical intervention is non infringed because it gives the State the power to sabotage the person freedom randomly. Therefore, it seems that patient liberty has non been one of the primary concerns in the mental wellness context. This seems to be demonstrated by the fact that that Act allows medical professionals to compulsorily admit patients against their will [ 23 ] and administer intervention which could be construed as anguish or inhuman and degrading intervention. [ 24 ] Under subdivision 2 of the Mental Health Act an application for an admittance for appraisal can be made if the patient suffers form mental upset of a nature or grade which warrants the detainment of the patient in a infirmary for appraisal ( or appraisal followed by medical intervention ) for a limited period ; or such a detainment would be in the involvements of his ain wellness or safety or with a position to the protection of others. Mental upset has been defined in subdivision 1 ( 2 ) of that Act as: â€Å"mental unwellness, arrested or uncomplete development of head, psychopathologic upset and any other upset or disablement of the mind.† Although the statue expressly states that promiscuousness, immoral behavior, sexual deviancy, intoxicant or drug dependence can non be the lone footing for handling person as holding a mental upset, it does non prevent a individual who suffers from a mental unwellness and any of those mentioned upsets from being classified as enduring a m ental upset. Furthermore, the phrase â€Å"nature or degree† has been defined to include a patient whose present manifestation of a serious mental status is non serious. [ 25 ] Thus, subdivision 2 can be invoked to compulsorily acknowledge a schizophrenic patient who was non demoing unsafe manifestation of his status at present but it was likely that he would in the close hereafter. The fact that mandatory admittance relates to instances where the patient poses a hazard to other people and to her or himself seems to integrate the rule ofparens patriaeand State constabularies power to conflict on single rights. Therefore, it seems organize the beginning that the statue provides limited protection of patient liberty. Even if an grownup, capable of giving consent, does non give his consent to the appraisal of his mental status, it is possible for medical professionals to control his autonomy even though he has non caused any injury to other people. The mere fact that a individual could be detained, if there is a hazard of injury of danger seems Draconian ; nevertheless, the fact that admittance under this proviso is capable to some safety step seem to guarantee that people who current conditions do non present a hazard to themselves or others and who is improbable to attest any unsafe conditions are non unnecessarily detained. Safety steps include a maximal time-limit on the figure of yearss a individual can be admitted obligatorily under this proviso, which is 28 yearss ; an process for instance reappraisal by a Mental Health Review court during the first 14 yearss of the detainment ; and a prohibition on disposal of intervention within the assessment period without the consent of the patient, unless there is an immediate and serious danger. InMH V Secretary of State for Health[ 26 ] the House of Lords considered the compatibility of subdivision 2 with the Human Rights Act 1998. Their Lordships opined that the proviso was compatible with the HRA 1998, because the protections were considered to be effectual and the extension of the reappraisal period without judicial blessing did non conflict Article 5 ( 4 ) of the ECHR because it was non required by that article. However, it is submitted that the fact that a individual can be detained even though he has non caused any danger and his current conditions do non demo any manifestations of unsafe inclinations seem to be a misdemeanor of patient liberty because there is no warrant that one time the individual is discharged he will non attest unsafe inclinations. In conformity with the logical thinking of John Stuart Mill, it is submitted such violation of personal freedom is inconsistent with the rule of autonomy. Admission for intervention under subdivision 3 is designed for long-run detainment and it can be invoked if ( a ) a patient is enduring from mental unwellness, terrible mental damage, psychotic upset or mental damage and his mental damage is of a nature or grade which makes it appropriate to have medical intervention in a infirmary ; and ( B ) in the instance of psychotic upset or mental damage, such intervention is likely to relieve or forestall a impairment of his status ; and it is necessary for his personal safety and the safety of others that he should be detained for the disposal of the intervention. [ 27 ] A psychotic upset seems to include a relentless upset or disablement of the head that consequences in abnormally aggressive or earnestly irresponsible behavior. [ 28 ] The significance of the treat-ability, the 2nd component of the subdivision 3, is that if a individual is enduring from a mental upset and there is no intervention that can be offered to better or to forestall a deterioration of a patient’s status, so that patient can non be detained. However, it seems to hold been established that the treat-ability trial would be satisfied if the stabilization or relief of the mental status is likely in due class, if indirect medical aid, such as nursing, attention, rehabilitation, etc. , is likely to enable a patient to obtain insight into his job and go more co-operative which could hold a permanent benefit. [ 29 ] Finally, the last standard is similar to subdivision 2 in that it is a manifestation ofparens patriaeand State constabularies power justifications for violation of single rights. However, the lone difference is that this proviso does non necessitate to be invoked if a patient consents to the intervention proposed by medical professionals. Although it seems that the patient has some liberty because the proviso would non hold to be detained if he consents to the intervention, the fact that he would be detained if he chooses non to accept seems to sabotage patient liberty. In fact, it is submitted that the rule of the right to self finding is undermined by these commissariats, without a sufficient justification. Theparens patriaeand State constabularies power justifications, although of import are non sufficient for the violation of the cardinal rights of single autonomy because it is one of paramount rule of medical jurisprudence and our fundamental law. Britons are entitled to transport out any action that is non expressly prohibited and which does non conflict on another person’s autonomy. Since a hazard of danger does non represent an violation of another person’s autonomy, it is submitted that this proviso is non relative. If an unqualified patient does non accept to intervention, so medical professionals can merely handle him in a manner that would advance his or her best involvement. [ 30 ] However, when a competent patient refuses intervention, intervention can merely be imposed upon them pursuant to Part IV of the Mental Health Act. Section 63 of that Act permits intervention for mental upset and does non empower intervention for physical conditions unrelated to the mental upset. This differentiation between intervention for a mental upset and intervention for other affairs has proven to be hard to explicate. For illustration, inRe KB ( Adult ) ( Mental Patient: Medical Treatment )[ 31 ] it was held that forced eating could be regarded as medical intervention every bit long as that intervention involved handling a symptom of the underlying medical upset. Furthermore, subsequent toNorfolk V Norwich Healthcare ( NHS ) Trust[ 32 ] it seems to hold been established that a sensible sum of force can be u sed to necessitate a patient to undergo intervention which is permitted under subdivision 63. These determinations do non look to be consistent with Article 3 of the ECHR which provides an absolute prohibition on anguish and inhuman and degrading intervention, because enforcing intervention against someone’s will could conflict Article 3. However, the Courts have taken a different sentiment and held that medical intervention of a medical status, if curative necessity with non infringe Article 3. [ 33 ] Thus, it seems that the medical professionals have to â€Å"convincingly† demonstrate that the non-consensual intervention is medically necessary if their actions were non to go against Article 3. [ 34 ] Although subdivision 63 does let look to sabotage patient liberty, it is submitted that the recent law seem to hold tried to better the status. The incorporation of more rigorous standards to warrant the disposal of intervention against someone’s will, look to guarantee that people’s liberty is non infringed unless it is medically necessary. It is submitted that this is a welcome development in the jurisprudence of mental wellness, because it ensures that people are non subjected to intervention that would sabotage their self-respect. Even though this attack is non a positive protection of personal autonomy, it ensures that patient’s organic structures are non violated and therefore it succeeds in protecting the patient’s liberty to decline a intervention, except when there is an clogging necessity for the disposal of intervention. The reform of the mental wellness jurisprudence has been long and painful. The current measure is at the commission phase in the House of Commons. [ 35 ] The intent of the measure had been to amend the jurisprudence associating to mandatory admittance of mentally sick patients, and simplify the definition of mental upset and protect patients and others from any injury that can originate from mental upset. The intents have been criticised on the evidences that the Government is seeking to go through a jurisprudence that would put a batch of accent on public protection and accordingly undermine patient liberty. Nevertheless, the new measure seem to include more elaborate commissariats, and therefore a more defined model, to turn to civil detainment of mentally sick patients. Harmonizing to the measure, a mentally sick patient can merely be treated obligatorily, if they satisfy the five relevant conditions. [ 36 ] These include: ( I ) that the patient is enduring from a mental upset ; ( two ) that upset is of such a nature or grade as to justify the proviso of medical intervention to him ; ( three ) that it is necessary ; ( four ) that the medical intervention can non legitimately be provided to the patent without him being capable to the commissariats of this portion ; and ( V ) that medical intervention is available which is appropriate in the patient’s instance, taking into history the nature or grade of his mental upset and all other fortunes of his instance. Mental upset has been defined as: â€Å"an damage of or a perturbation in the operation of the head or encephalon resulting in any disablement or upset of the head or encephalon. [ 37 ] This fact that this definition does non specify mental upset by virtuousness of its manifestations seems to be a development of the jurisprudence. Furthermore, it has been clarified that intoxicant and drug dependence would non be classified as mental upset. Clause 1 ( 7 ) [ 38 ] has codified the treatment-ability trial and clearly states out what would represent intervention. Necessity is an of import limitation on mandatory disposal of intervention because it ensures that if protection to self or others can be afforded in the community, so detainment can non be justified. Clause 9 ( 7 ) [ 39 ] has been criticised because it seems to be a disproportional usage of province powers, because medical professional can still handle a mentally sick patient under this proviso, even if the patient is willing and able to accept to the intervention. Finally, the Bill has expunged the demand that the intervention will better the patient’s status or prevent it from deteriorating to guarantee that intervention is available to the patient. In decision it is submitted that the reform of the Mental Health Law is welcome, because the commissariats for mandatory detainment under the current jurisprudence seems to basically inconsistent with the impression of patient liberty because it allows medical practicians to confine mentally sick patients without their consent and without the protection of a well defined procedural model. The Reformed jurisprudence is non perfect but at least it is a development as it provides a more defined model for medical professionals if they decide to confine a mentally sick patient against their will. Bibliography Legislation and Bill Mental Capacity Act 2005 Mental Health Act 1983 Mental Health Bill 2004 Cases Appleton V Garrett( 1995 ) 34 BMLR 23 Bartlye V Studd, unreported Chatterton V Gerson[ 1981 ] 1 All ER 257 Chester V Afshar[ 2004 ] UKHL 41 Freeman v Home Office[ 1984 ] 1 All ER 1036. MH V Secretary of State for Health[ 2005 ] UKHL 60. Norfolk V Norwich Healthcare ( NHS ) Trust[ 1996 ] 2 FLR 613 Re B ( Consent to Treatment: Capacity )[ 2002 ] EWCH 429 Re KB ( Adult ) ( Mental Patient: Medical Treatment )( 1994 ) 19 BMLR 144. Re W[ 1992 ] 4 All ER 627, 633 R V Canons Parke MHRT ex p A[ 1994 ] 2 All ER 659. R v Mental Health Tribunal for South Thames Region ex P Smith( 1998 ) 47 BMLR 104. R ( on the application of B ) V Dr S[ 2005 ] EWHC 1939 ( Admin. ) R ( on the application of M ) V Dr M, A NHS Trust and Dr O[ 2002 ] EWHC 1911 R ( on the application of Burke ) V GMC[ 2005 ] 3 FCR 169 R ( on the application of Burke ) V GMC[ 2004 ] EWHC ( Admin ) 1879 R ( on the application of N ) V Dr M A NHS Trust[ 2002 ] EWHC 1911 R V Sullivan[ 1984 ] AC 156, 170-1 R V Tabaussum[ 2000 ] Ll Rep Med 404 Sidaway V Bethlem[ 1985 ] 1 All ER 643 Monograph Herring, Jonathan,Medical Law and Ethical motives, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006 McHale, Jean and Fox, Marie,Health Care Law, 2neodymiumEd. , Thompson Sweet A ; Maxwell, London, 2007

Putting sport in context Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Putting sport in context - Coursework Example ly, the planner has to take into consideration knowledge and understanding of the sport, have cognitive skills and generally approach coaching sessions from a professional perspective (Garland, Malcolm, & Rowe 2000). The second activity, actual coaching of children, is a physical activity. This is because coaching in today’s society demands the physical input and practical participation of the coach. Giving a player the instructions to conduct an activity for instance is not as effective as actually showing them what requires to be done. As such, the coach participates as much as the players in the activities scheduled for a coaching session. This fact can be explained through the transformation of the sports arena from the early 1900 when a swimming instructor, for instance, would guide a swimming session from the sidelines of a pool and would assist a troubled swimmer, without necessary getting into the water, with a long pole. In contrast, today’s swimming instructor is always in a swim suit ready to dive into the water should the need arise. In addition to this, swimming instructors get into the water themselves during training sessions, practically illustrating the body move ments necessary (Study Guide 2008). Football has become a household name in most regions of the world. To most people, it is considered a sport since they engage in it for leisure purposes. The physical activity carried out in football serves to improve the experience in the sport as well as enhance efficiency. The major difference between a sport and a physical activity is the competitiveness involved. Physical activities are also not governed by any regulations unlike sports (Stevens 2008). Football entails teamwork, a virtue that is of importance in life, competitiveness and physical activity. In addition, the game is governed by rules set by an international body, Federation of International Football Association, FIFA. According to UNICEF (2004), a sport must be regulated

Arguments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arguments - Essay Example The beaches in San Diego are beautiful and famous, and the city has several other attractions such as zoo, wild Animal Park, Sea World, and Balboa Park with all the museums. Similarly, this beautiful city is distinguished for the availability of world-class goods and services, and it is one of the richest and safest cities in the United States. It is important to realize that Forbes magazine has rated San Diego as the fifth-wealthiest city in the United States and the 9th safest city in the top 10 list of safest cities in the nation. (Clemence) The city was also rated in 2006 as the fifth-best place to live in the United States, and there are several favorable conditions for happy and peaceful living in the city, including the weather, the beaches, opportunities for cultural events, availability of world-class goods and services, etc. Therefore, it is indubitable to claim that San Diego is a great place to live in. In a reflective analysis of the favorable conditions to live in San D iego, it becomes evident that the city is blessed with comfortable weather, the beaches, opportunities for cultural events, etc. The weather of the city, which is comfortable year round, is the most important reason to claim that it is a great location for happy living.

Critical Summary and Evaluation Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical Summary and Evaluation - Term Paper Example Moreover, he believes that the education system needs to be reformed to such an extent that only the best students can be attracted to become teachers, especially in high school and middle school. This will encourage students to learn and excel in their academics, because they will be taught by people who know what is best for them. He observes that this is not the current case in most schools because most of those who are assigned as teachers are the ones who used to perform poorly in class. This, in Gutting’s opinion, is one of the reasons why there is so little motivation among students to perform in their academics; these students are not even focused on what they want to do in life, instead concentrating on irrelevant things. The same case seems to apply to those who teach them because they have no new knowledge to provide students. Since the teachers themselves were not strong performers in class, they do not concentrate on building the intellectual capabilities of their students. It can therefore, be said that more incentives should be provided to those teachers who are highly educated, so that they can comfortably be able to teach high school, hence do away with the need for students to go to college. ... Gutting suggests that steps be taken to ensure that high schools are as attractive to teach in as colleges are. Only the best teacher should be recruited to teach the students so that their performance can be improved. Furthermore, it is also necessary to improve the infrastructure in schools so that both teachers and students feel comfortable working within it. If all these are implemented, then, Gutting suggests, a high school education would be sufficient to allow an individual to function perfectly in the workplace. Only those who want to specialize in certain fields should be the ones going to college. Evaluation When one considers the article by Gutting, one will find that most of his arguments make sense. It is, indeed, true that the quality of high school education in America has been gradually eroding over the years. This is due to the lack of qualified people to teach high school students. If the majority of the teachers today were competent enough in what they were doing, then it would not have been necessary for students to go to college in the first place. College would have been only for those people who were interested in furthering their education. Making high school teaching jobs attractive would require the introduction of equal or more incentive than that given to college professors. This will ensure that more professionals who would otherwise have opted to teach in colleges going to teach in high school. Such a move would almost instantly ensure that the quality of education in high schools went up. It would offer high school students an insight into what exactly they would like to do in their lives. Furthermore, these teachers would function as role models for their students, who would

Attitudes Towards Minorities With Mental Illness Social Work Essay

Attitudes Towards Minorities With Mental Illness Social Work Essay Members of ethnic minority groups are faced with several barriers that prevent them from adequately participating in treatment for mental illness. Mental illnesses are commonly overlooked and untreated due to the negative connotations that surround them. Minorities with lower socioeconomic status frequently have poor physical health, which creates vulnerability to mental illness pooled with a lack of affordable treatment and accessible resources. Stigma along with various beliefs and attitudes generates discrimination and social distancing behaviors towards persons with mental illness, as a result of the direct affects of ignorance, negative attitudes, and common beliefs. This often results in discrepancy and underutilization of service amongst minority populations. Mental Illness is a disorder of the brain that affects a persons mood, thinking and behavior (Cohen 2002, NIMH). Mental disorders are all around us, however, in many cases some are overlooked. According to the National Institute of Mental Health an estimated 26.2 percent of Americans, ages 18 and older, suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder each year; an estimated 45 percent of those with any diagnosable mental disorder meet criteria for 2 or more disorders (NIMH 2010). Serious mental illnesses interrupt a persons ability to carry out essential aspects of daily life. There are several different types of mental illnesses some of which are more severe than others, however, the most common disorders are depression, anxiety disorders, panic attacks, bipolar disorders, phobias, eating disorders, substance abuse, dementia, and schizophrenia (Kobau 2008). Causes of mental illness range from inherited traits and genetics to biological, environmental and social cultural factors to life experiences, such as excessive stress. When mental illnesses are left untreated, it can cause emotional, physical and behavioral health problems (Cohen, 2002; Whitley, 2010). However, due to stigmas and various negative connotations surrounding mental illness people often try to reject, ignore or self medicate the illness in a state of denial (Cohen, 2002). Moreover, poverty is an important moderator of the correlation between serious mental illness and social problems (Draine, 2002). African Americans as well as minorities are more prone to suffer from significant and persistent disparities within the mental health system (Whitley, 2010). This research paper will examine racial differences of both men and women suffering from common mental illness disorders and their usage of mental health services associated with stigmas. Minorities suffering from menta l illness are often less likely to access service from a mental health professional, and will more often receive poor quality care or drop out upon admittance (Whitley, 2010). Stigma and Discrimination The term stigma originally derives from the ancient Greek practice where criminals were branded, leaving them with a mark referred to as a stigma that allowed them to be easily identified (Gibson 2008). Persons with a stigma were usually rejected from society, viewed as outcast, and devalued by society similar to persons suffering from mental illness. Due to the stigma attached to persons tormented by mental illness, it forms a lack of personal contact with persons suffering from these disorders; resulting in a lack of knowledge, which in turn leads to prejudices, negative attitudes and stereotypes towards them (Alegria 2002, Guimà ³n 2010). Stigmatization of persons suffering with mental illness stems from socio-cultural, ethnic, religious, and economic factors (Guimà ³n, 2010). Stereotype-based negative attitudes and prejudices towards mental illness develop early in life, originating from cultural, historical and media depictions (Sartorius Schulze, 2005; Bauman, 2007; Guimà ³ n 2010). Prejudices, discrimination and social distance are frequent consequences of the stigmatization that follows mental illness. The effect of stigma permeates through many aspects of the lives mentally ill patients, resulting in discrimination by means of denial of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. For example, adequate housing, employment, education, health, freedom of opinion and expression can all be affected either directly or indirectly triggered by mental illness (Guimà ³n, 2010). Due to expectations of stable norms and values that shape todays society social distance becomes a direct effect of stigma related to mental illness (Baumann, 2007). When severe mental illness results in unusual or abnormal behavior the desire for separation and social distance becomes essential. Several social psychiatrists propose that society itself is sick and that stigmas and the diagnostic process are simply attempts to label individuals who try to free themselves from societ ys general organization (Guimà ³n, 2010). Stigma associated with mental illness exists across the general population. However, they hold acute significance amongst minority populations. Studies have found racial and ethnic differences regarding stigmatizing attitudes surrounding people with mental illness, which often influences discrimination and negative attitudes toward seeking treatment for mental illnesses (Alegria 2002, Faye 2005, Bolden 2005, Anglin, 2006). Minorities endure double stigma as a result of discriminatory practices along with having to deal with the burden of living with a mental disorder (Faye 2005, Shim 2009). Double stigma is created by ethnic minority group membership, which confronts the individual with significant barriers (Faye 2005). Researchers have theorized that African Americans, Caribbean blacks and persons from other ethnic minority groups hold more negative attitudes than Caucasians (Anglin, 2006; Shim, 2009; Whitley 2010). Stigmatizing attitudes in most cases acts as a barrier and deters i ndividuals from seeking care in order to avoid the label and shame of mental illness that result when people are associated with mental health care (Gary, 2005; Anglin, 2006). Quality of Treatment Care Furthermore, stigmatizing views are not strictly limited to the general population or in the context of social relationships with friends, relatives or employers; stereotypes also occur in the contact with general health professionals (Guimà ³n 2010, Ross Goldner 2009). A vast number of general medical nurses share negative attitudes and commonly held stereotypical beliefs of mental illness. Studies have shown that mental health psychiatry patients needs are not viewed as a priority by general medical nurses (Ross Goldner 2009). Thus they have more constructive things to handle such as looking after someone who is really sick, and more deserving while mentally ill patients are simply taking up space preventing a patient in need from a receiving a bed (Ross Goldner 2009). General nurses often stigmatize and present negative attitudes towards mental health psychiatry patients due to a lack of knowledge in addition to media generated and historical misrepresentations of persons with mental illness as violent and bizarre (Gary 2005; Ross Goldner, 2009; Guimà ³n, 2010). Affordable treatment and accessible resources is also a discrepancy when it comes to seeking psychiatric services. Minorities are at risk for not receiving adequate mental health care, given the lower socioeconomic status (Gary 2005). They often lack health insurance and are not capable to pay for services (Roberts 2008). This creates a circle of poverty is created when serious mental disorders go untreated resulting in individuals becoming unable to fully participate in education and work opportunities (Roberts 2008). Family resources are often depleted due to poverty, drastically effecting families struggling to provide care, and costly treatment for their loved ones (Gary 2005). Minorities with mental illness are less likely to receive treatment for mental illness. However, when they do receive treatment the care is more likely to be of poor quality (Shim 2009). Because African Americans and minorities seek treatment during a crisis the care they receive is normally crisis oriented, episodic and less likely to enhance long term recovery.(Bolden 2008) Social position plays major role in both mental illness and service use (Alegria 2002, Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Living in poor socioeconomic conditions encourage suffering distress and a greater risk of becoming diagnosed with a mental illness, with a lower chance of obtaining proper treatment (Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Minorities are overrepresented in underserved communities often lacking insurance or the ability to pay for services (Alegria 2002, Roberts 2008, Whitley 2010). Therefore, due to African Americans as well as other minorities previous experience with lower quality mental healthcare due to r acist experiences they are often discouraged from seeking care (Algeria 2002). Treatment Views and Outcomes In order to avoid anticipated discrimination and prejudice due to their condition, many people suffering with mental illness fail to seek treatment for early symptoms. One in four Americans will be affected by a mental health disorder in their lives. However, two out of three persons will seek help from a professional (Roberts, 2008). Minorities often seek late treatment during a crisis at the emergency room or from a primary care physician opposed to a psychiatrist or other specialty mental health professionals (Shim 2009, Bolden 2005). Studies have shown that specifically African Americans and minorities underutilize voluntary professional mental health services, driven by the uncertainty of the effectiveness of treatment (Anglin 2008, Jagedeo 2009), viewing the mental health clinic as a place to be fearfully avoided rather than a provider of service (Whitley 2010). Several researchers have hypothesized that certain demographics are more likely to feel uncomfortable speaking with a mental health professionals. Research has shown that a possible explanation for the differences of minorities seeking and receiving treatment for mental illness is a consequence of mistrust among patients (Alegria 2002). It has been argued that African American patients believe that their mental health experience of anguish is a religious or moral issue opposed to a psychiatric concern (Whitley 2010). African Americans prefer to receive informal counseling from church officials and ministers, which in turn prolongs delays in clinical treatment (Bolden 2005, Anglin 2008, Whitley 2010). Deidre M. Anglins research also suggests that African Americans are more likely to seek services from extended family networks. Anglin stresses the importance of family involvement and religion in African American Culture, which correlates to psychiatric rehabilitation related to stigma and family involvement, where families often discourage persons suffering with mental illness from seeking treatment (Whitley 2010). In contrast to the stigma associated with mental illness researchers have found that African Americans are more likely to believe that metal health professionals or a spiritual leader can help individuals suffering from mental disorders, however, studies consistently show that African Americans under utilize voluntary mental health services(Anglin 2008). Research has found that African Americans along with other minorities often believe that mental illness conditions will improve on their own, or that the condition is not serious (Anglin 2008, Roberts 2008, Shim 2009). Research has suggested that minorities believe that mild symptoms of mental illness are normal experiences, due to socioeconomic problems and daily experiences within their community (Roberts 2008). African Americans are more likely to delay seeking help until they experience symptoms or during a crisis, and are severely ill during the time of utilization which determines the length of the stay (Bolden 2005, Anglin 200 8). Furthermore, when individuals decide to seek treatment, many of them neglect the prescribed course of therapy, while others terminate mental health services all together (Faye 2005). Research suggests that once contact with mental healthcare professionals is made positive pretreatment attitudes diminish (Angling 2008, Shim 2009). African Americans and minorities have cultural mistrust when it comes to the mental healthcare system, leading to increased dropout and decreased client satisfaction surrounding treatment (Anglin 2008). Negative attitudes and stigma also advocate a strong association between mental healthcare and treatment dropout (Jagedeo 2009). Conclusion Racial and ethnic minorities beliefs regarding the natural course and the seriousness of mental illnesses relate to the perceived treatment effectiveness and common beliefs. Stigmatization, negative attitudes and discrimination attached to mental illnesses often lead to the under treatment of mental disorders. Minorities frequently believe that mental illness can be treated and possibly improve. However, there is inconsistency between the beliefs of actual need for treatment and utilization. Together, these realities support the hypothesis that minorities with mental illness are often less likely to access service from a mental health professional. In sum, increased awareness regarding the benefits of treatment can increase efforts, as well as beliefs hat mental health treatment is necessary.

Titration Research Paper

Quantitative Chemistry –Titration Determination of the Molarity of an Unknown Solution through Acid-Base Titration Technique 1. Introduction 1. 1 Aim The aim of this investigation was to determine the precise molarity of two (NaOH(aq)) sodium hydroxide solutions produced at the beginning of the experiment through the acid-base titration technique. 1. 2 Theoretical Background Titration is a method commonly used in laboratory investigations to carry out chemical analysis. The most frequent chemical analysis performed through titration is when determining the exact concentration of a solution of unknown molarity.This technique is usually used in redox and acid-base reactions. Redox reaction is when reduction – lost of oxygen – of one of the substances present in a reaction occurs and subsequently oxidation – gain of oxygen – of the second substance in the same reaction takes place. On the other hand, acid-base reaction is when a solution of known molar ity2 and volume present in a conical flask is titrated against a solution of unknown molarity in a burette until neutralization is reached. As I have shown in eq. 1, in this investigation it was an acid reacting with a base, hence, an acid-base titration. q. 1 – Hydrochloric Acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium Chloride + water HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) In this investigation the latter reaction was carried out, having hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) as the analyte in the conical flask and sodium hydroxide (NaOH(aq)) as the titrant in the burette. The analyte was also designated as the standard solution of the experiment, since it has known values of volume and concentration, the figures that allowed the molarity of the titrant to be calculated.In an acid-base titration, the titrant in the burette is gradually added to the analyte in the conical flask until neutralisation happens, thus, the reaction reaches completion. When neutralisation happens the substances present at the end point are stoichiometrically equivalent, in other words, the value of moles of NaOH(aq) present at the end of the reaction is equivalent to the value of moles of HCl(aq) in the same solution as shown on eq. 2 below. eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 1 : 1The end point of a titration reaction can be obtained through two major methods. Firstly is by using a pH meter which works by introducing electrodes to the flask containing the standard solution. Once in the conical flask, these electrodes would measure the H+ ions present in the conical flask since they change as the titrant in added, until neutralisation happens, as a result, determining the pH of the solution. Knowing that neutralization happens when the pH of the solution is equal to 7, consequently, at the end point the pH meter will read 7.The second method would be using a colour indicator this could be paper or in liquid form. In an acid-base titration it would be convenient to use an indicator in liq uid. For instance, phenolphthalein is a recurrent indicator in this type of reaction which is colourless in an acidic solution and turns pink when in a basic solution. This indicator works by adding a few drops into the conical flask containing the acidic analyte and titrate the basic titrant drop-wise until colour of the solution formed in the conical flask changes to pink.All things considered, the colour indicator was used in this experiment since it is the most accessible method to measure the end point of an acid-base titration. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the unknown molarity of NaOH(aq) from acid-base titration. The preparation of NaOH(aq) was done by the students performing this investigation. The students were allocated mass of NaOH(s) that was diluted in water and hence obtained the solution NaOH(aq), in this case the titrant. However, the analyte was not produced by the student but provided.Therefore, after the titration was performed as explained o n the previous paragraphs, the data needed to calculate the molarity of NaOH(aq) was obtained. 1. 3 Preliminary calculations 1. 3. 1 The first important value to be obtained from the investigation was the volume of NaOH(aq) used. This was done by the following equation: eq. 3 – for 1st solution produced Average volume volume of 2nd trial – volume of 1st trial2= V1 eq. 4 – for 2nd solution produced Average volume volume of 2nd trial – volume of 1st trial2= V2 1. 3. The next step when determining the molarity of NaOH(aq) was to calculate the moles of HCl(aq) by using the volume HCl(aq) provided on the lab scripts and the molarity obtained from the bottle of HCl(aq) used during the investigation. The eq. 5 and eq. 6 below was used to calculate: eq. 5 – moles1 = V1 (dm3) ? molarity (M) eq. 6 – moles2 = V2 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 1. 3. 3 The third important equation, for both solutions, worth noting are the number of moles of NaOH(aq) present in the reaction. This was obtained by using ratio of the moles of NaOH(aq) : HCl(aq) used during the investigation.This can be recalled by eq. 2 eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) 1 : 1 1. 3. 4 Hence, moles of both solutions of NaOH(aq) will be the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq) since the mole ratio is 1:1. That is for every one mole of HCl(aq) reacted, one mole of NaOH(aq) would have reacted with to neutralise the acid. Hence, the following equation will be used: eq. 7 – moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) 1. 3. 5 Lastly, the equation of the molarity of NaOH(aq): eq. 8 – Molarity for solution 1 =moles1volume1 q. 9 – Molarity for solution 1 =moles1volume1 2. Investigation 2. 1 Apparatus Due to the nature of the investigation very technical and precise laboratory apparatus were used to ensure best accuracy in results. For instance, in order to measure the acid, a pipette of exactly 20ml was used. This was very useful since it helped in diminishing the c hance of measuring either more or less of acid needed for the investigation. Similarly, the burette used to titrate the NaOH(aq) had 50 ml of volume this allowed enough volume of NaOH(aq) to be titrated, since the exact volume to neutralise the acid was unknown.Another precise apparatus was the magnetic stirrer. Being magnetic and electric it allowed the solution in the flask to be mixed continuously and vigorously and hence allow the exact volume of acid to be obtained. The other apparatus that were also used in this experiment were the solutions – titrant and analyte – themselves. The sodium hydroxide was given in pellets whereas the hydrochloric acid was provided in liquid form with the molarity of 1M. Moreover, volumetric flasks of volume of 100ml were also provided. This were used to produce the NaOH(aq) solutions, hence the reason for allowing 100ml of NaOH(aq) to be produced.In its turn, conical flasks of 250 ml of volume were also provided. As mentioned on the introductory paragraphs, the analyte is deposited in the conical flask. In this case, a volume of 250 ml was allowed to host the acid and the titrated base giving enough space for the solution to be formed. Lastly, phenolphthalein indicator was provided together with it a pair of gloves to avoid accidental stain on students’ hands. The apparatus setting is shown below in fig. 1. fig. 1 – diagram of apparatus used in the investigation 2. 2 Safety In terms of safety, the investigation involved very strong solutions.For instance, the sodium hydroxide pellets, although they were in solid form, after dissolving in water it could cause severe burns if put in direct contact with skin or eyes. Hence, as a pre-cautionary measure some gloves as well as goggles were provided to students. It was important to point out that if in case of accident in eyes, swallow or skin contact it should be rinsed vigorously in abundant water and seek medical attention. As for the hydrochloric aci d, it was a very acidic solution that if swallowed it would be very harmful.Similarly to sodium hydroxide it could cause severe burns if in contact with eyes or skin. For prevention of any accident, lab coats, goggles and gloves were provided. However, in case of accident, medical advice had to be immediately provided to student. 2. 3 Procedure This experiment, it involved two different solutions of NaOH(aq), for this reason, it was allowed to students to work in pairs in order to save time, since only 3 hours were allowed to perform investigation. The first part of the investigation was to prepare two NaOH(aq) solutions. Hence, each student was allocated a mass of NaOH(s) to measure.In this investigation performed, 2g and 5g of NaOH(s) pellets were meant to be weight using a 2 decimal place weight balance. However, since relatively large pellets were provided and not powder, it made not possible to measure the exact mass intended, instead, 2. 07g and 5. 19g were weighed. After weig hting the masses of NaOH(s), the pellets weighting 2. 07g and 5. 19g each mass was put in a separate 250ml volumetric flask, water was added to the flask and then shook in order to let the pellets dissolve to for a solution A and solution B of NaOH(aq) respectively. Secondly, the apparatus shown in fig. was as shown in the figure. Thirdly, 20ml of HCl(aq) was measured as accurate as possible by using a pipette if 20 ml of volume. This HCl(aq) measured was put in a 250ml conical flask. After preparing the acid, in this case, the analyte, 7 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added to the conical flask where the analyte was added. The conical flask was places on the magnetic stirrer as shown in fig. 1. The forth part of the investigation was when a 50ml burette was filled with solution A. Following this, the magnetic stirrer was switched on, stirring the solution present in the conical flask moderately.Hence, using the tap present on the burette, the solution A was added to the con ical flasks in a drop-wise fashion until one drop was added to turn the solution pink permanently. When the solution in the conical flask turned permanently pink, the end point of the titration had been reached, thus, the volume of solution A used from the burette was recorded. Then, the conical flask was rinsed in abundant water. The sixth part of the experiment was to repeat third to fifth part of the experiment to obtain a second reading of the volume used to titrate solution A.After the sixth part was finalised, second part to sixth part of the procedure was repeated, however, this time solution B was used in the place of solution A. By the end of the experiment, two values of volume of solution A and two values of volume of solution B titrated against the acid were obtained and recorded in table 1. 3. Treatment of Raw Data 3. 1 Results table | Solution A| Solution B| Molarity of HCl(aq)| 1 moldm-3| 1 moldm-3| Volume of HCl(aq)| 20 ml| 20 ml| | Indicator used| phenolphtlalein| | Volume of NaOH(aq) | Trial I| 41. 1 ml| 16. 8 ml| Trial II| 38. 4 ml| 17. 1 ml| Average volume of NaOH(aq) used| 39. 8 ml| 17. 0 ml| | Observations| *Calculations*Average mass of NaOH(aq) used was calculated using the following formula: Trial I + Trial II2| * Not the mass expected was weighted – mass for solution A -0. 1g difference; mass for solution B +0. 7g difference. * Bubbles given out when dissolving the NaOH(s) * Volumetric felt warm when mixing the NaOH(s) with water * Some residous seen in the acid * Conical flask was rinsed with tap water * Some acid was spilled on the table, i. e. not all 20 ml was put in the conical flask| . Treatment of Results 4. 1 Processing raw data 4. 1. 1 – Balanced equation The balanced equation of the reaction taken place in this investigation was reviwed in the introductory paragraphs, eq. 2 below: eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 eq. 2 show that one mole of hydrochloric acid reacts with exact ly 1 mole of sodium hydroxide to form salt – sodium chloride and water, hence, the mole ratio between the substances is 1:1. 4. 1. – moles of HCl(aq) for solution A Again, the formula used to calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid for solution A has been reviewed in the beginning of the investigative report. Therefore, in order to find the moles of HCl(aq) eq. 5 was used: eq. 5 – moles1 = V1 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 0. 020 dm3 ? 1 moldm-3 = 0. 020 mol moles1 = ? V1 (dm3) = 20. 0 ml 20. 0ml 1000 = 0. 020 dm3 molarity (M) = 1 moldm-3 4. 1. 3 – moles of HCl(aq) for solution B the formula used to calculate the moles of hydrochloric acid for solution B was the same as the formula calculated for solution A.Therefore, in order to find the moles of HCl(aq) eq. 6 was used: eq. 6 – moles2 = V2 (dm3) ? molarity (M) 0. 020 dm3 ? 1 moldm-3 = 0. 020 mol moles2 = ? V2 (dm3) = 0. 020 ml 20. 0ml 1000 = 0. 020 dm3 molarity (M) = 1 moldm-3 4. 1. 4 – moles of NaO H(aq) for solution A From the molar ratio between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide it was seen that one mole of acid reacted completely with one mole of the base. This is shown on eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 nd hence, eq. 7 moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) it is just to say that the number of moles of NaOH(aq) produced in this reaction was 0. 020 mol the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq). 4. 1. 5 – moles of NaOH(aq) for solution B Again in the solution B, the molar ratio between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide is the same as the above solution. Hence: eq. 2 – HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) mole ratio: 1 : 1 and thus and hence, eq. 7 moles of HCl(aq)= NaOH(aq) t is just to say that the number of moles of NaOH(aq) produced in this reaction was 0. 020 mol the same as the number of moles of HCl(aq). 4. 1. 6 – molarity of NaOH(aq) for solution A The molarity of NaOH(aq) from solution A was calculated using e q. 8 reviewed at the introductory paragraph of this investigative report. Hence: eq. 8 – Molarity for solution A = moles1volume1 0. 020 mol0. 0398 dm3 = 0. 5 moldm-3 moles1 = 0. 020 mol volume1 = 39. 8ml 39. 8ml 1000 = 0. 0398 dm3 4. 1. 7 – molarity of NaOH(aq) for solution B The molarity of NaOH(aq) from solution B was calculated using eq. also reviewed at the introductory paragraph of this investigative report. Hence: eq. 9 – Molarity for solution B = moles1volume1 0. 020 mol0. 0170 dm3 = 1. 17 moldm-3 moles1 = 0. 020 mol volume1 = 17. 0ml 17. 0ml 1000 = 0. 0170 dm3 5. Discussion of Results The results obtained from the calculations carried out in this investigative report were somehow near the actual value expected to get. For instance, the molarity of solution A was 0. 5 moldm-3 and the assigned molarity was also 0. 5 moldm-3. However, for the molarity of solution B, the value was a slightly offset, the actual value assigned was 1. moldm-3 and from the above calculation the molarity of the solution was 1. 17 moldm-3. Analysing the data from table. 1 it is possible that the difference on the molarity of solution B is due to many errors that occurred during the experiment. The main source of error in this experiment was human error. For instance, when the volume for solution B was being poured into the conical flask, some of the content was spilled on the desk. This means that not all volume of acid was reacted with the base, as intended to be at the beginning of the experiment.This type of error mentioned on the above paragraph can be minimized have having more practice with using pipette. Another way is by utilizing sophisticated pipettes that will not let the content out unless the person utilizing chooses to do so by pressing a button. 6. Conclusion In this experiment, the unknown molarities of two solution of sodium hydroxide were to be investigating. The aim was to produce two solutions of NaOH(aq) and titrate them against an acid. The production of NaOH(aq) was successful which gave the opportunity to titrate against the acid.However the molarities calculated were very similar to the molarities intended. This suggests that the investigation was successful, although it was not fully successful due to errors that occurred during the investigation. Nevertheless, the results can be used as the actual molarity of the solution taken into account that the initial masses were not as well as the masses intended to be weight. 7. References * Jones, L; Atkins, P. (2000). Chemistry’s accounting: Reaction Stoichiometry. Chemistry: Molecules, Matter and Change. 4th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. p160-162 * Clark, J. (2000).Basic Calculations Involving solutions. Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry. Pearson Education Limited. p61 – 66 * LoveToKnow. (1996-2011). Titration – Definiton of Titration. Available: http://www. yourdictionary. com/titration. Last accessed 14th Nov 2011. * ChemBuddy. (2005). Concentration lectures – definition. Available  : http://www. chembuddy. com/? left=concentration&right=concentration. Last accessed 15th Nov 2011. * Harold, C. (2011-2012). Experiment 2  : Acid-Base Titration. CHE-00027/29 General and Organic Chemistry Laboratory Handbook. Keele University. p17-20 ——————————————– 1 ]. Concentration – number of molecules present in a specific volume of a solution [ 2 ]. Molarity – concentration of a solute per mole; also known as molar concentration [ 3 ]. Analyte – the solution with known values of its volume and concentration [ 4 ]. Titrant – the solution with unknown values of volume and concentration [ 5 ]. End point – the stage at which enough titrant has been added to neutralise the analyte [ 6 ]. pH meter – a laboratory electronic equipment used to measure the pH of a solution [ 7 ]. pH – the negative logarithm value of H+ present in a solution, determining the acidity of the solution

Racism and Slavery in America Essay

The origin of race and slavery in North America is often viewed chronologically. Historians are divided on their stance as to whether or not racism may be considered as the root cause of slavery. While some agree on this, others argue that slavery in fact had nothing to do with the origins of racism and that in retrospect, slavery when legalized actually facilitated racism. However, the question is not one of precedence because essentially the social differences including rituals, religion, and language along with inequalities of power between the Europeans and Africans together gave way to racism and slavery. Hence it would be wrong to divide North America in the seventeenth century into the two binaries of race and slavery and consider these realms as mutually exclusive. It was not just racism that made Africans slaves or slavery that made Europeans racist. Rather, the interaction of differences in race and power structure created a realm where each overlaps and influences one other. The two arguments presented by scholars are true yet they are contradictory if viewed from the perspective of causality. This suggests that for both the standpoints to hold true, the occurrence of racism and slavery had to be during the same period in history, not preceding one another. Thus, this paper explores the idea that slavery and racism cannot be seen in a relationship of causality. Instead, slavery and racism are iterative terms, i. e. they are the products of a large number of small unconscious acts and interactive social engagements. As Canessa asserts that â€Å"each iteration reinforces or undermines a particular identity, but any single act is unlikely to have a major effect†, it suggests that neither racism or slavery preceded each other, but rather they developed and influenced each other as a result of the interactions between Europeans and Africans. The concept of iteration can be understood by exploring the two different positions that various scholars hold. The first stance that racism preceded slavery, demands an explanation of the word ‘race’ itself. The definition of race includes the biological description of one’s phenotype and their genetic set up. This description often leads to the physiognomic differences which generalize the behavior and social standing of people. Gleaning from this idea of race, it is not a surprise to find that the English described Negros as ‘savages’ and ‘barbaric’ using their ethnocentric lens of what it meant to be ‘civilized’. They used the criteria of color, religion, rituals and economic and social status to demarcate the racial identities as superior or inferior. Carl N. Delger questions the view of scholars who believe that racism was a result of legalized slavery by asserting that even if one believes that â€Å"slavery evolved as a legal status, it reflected and included as a part of its essence, the same (racial) discrimination which white men had practiced against the Negro all along and before any statutes decreed it. † Carl Delger’s argument explicitly states that the racist attitude of Whites was the root cause for the origination of slavery. He says that â€Å"long before slavery or black labor became an important part of the southern economy, a special and inferior status had been worked out for the Negroes who came to the English colonies. Unquestionably it was a demand for labor which dragged the Negro to American shores, but the status which he acquired here cannot be explained by reference to that economic motive. † He claims that although slavery was legalized half a century after the and terms like ‘slave’ were not used to define Negros, their treatment wasn’t any better. Many scholars like Carl N.  Degler argue that the Whites were inherently racist and practiced racism on everyone who belonged to a different race. This trait is evident because before the Whites had black slaves, they practiced slavery on Indigenous Indians and on white indentured labor that included Irish, Polish, Jews, and Germans. Thus, â€Å"an inferior and onerous service was established for the Indian makes it plausible to suppose that a similar status would be reserved for the equally different and pagan Negro. † I agree with his assumption because it suggests that racism was not something that was new to English when they brought the Negros. However, once the Whites enslaved the Africans, they grew less severe towards the white servants. The evidence for his argument comes from a variety of sources. Degler provides the example where the differences in status between an English servant and Negro were reflected not only at a public level but in the private lives of Negros as well. Degler asserts that not only the company (some European trading company) distrusted the Negros but some whites even held on to Negros as slaves for life as early 1630s and their slavery was inheritable. Thus, Carl Degler argues that all the statutes that were enforced after 1660s, were nothing but a result of the racist ideologies that forced the English to make such brutal and discriminatory laws. Moreover, historians like Winthrop D. Jordan assert that the heathenism of Negros was an important component which invited a racially discriminatory reaction from the English. He asserts that besides the physiological differences like color of the skin, factors like cultural practices and religious beliefs constituted the notions of racism. He explains that the English believed that, â€Å"to be Christian was to be civilized rather than barbarous, English rather than African, white rather than black†¦By this time, â€Å"Christianity had somehow become intimately and explicitly linked with â€Å"complexion†. However, heathenism alone could not have been the sole cause for enslavement, because it was easily terminated as soon as the Negro was converted into a Christian. Hence, Winthrop asserts that it was, â€Å"virtually every quality in the Negro (that) invited pejorative feelings. Along with heathenism, the language, gestures and eating habits of Negros were strikingly different from the English, and contributed towards the notion of ‘savages’ and ‘barbaric’. However, there is opposition to the correlation between the racial discrimination and slavery. Carl Delger and Winthrop are in complete contrast with the ideologies that Kathleen Brown, Edmund Morgan and Oscar and Mary F. Handlin believe in. Although the latter do not deny that racism was a part of American society in the 17th century, they attribute different reasons for its presence. Instead of attributing the ‘inherent racism’ as the cause of slavery, they believe that the motivation for economic prosperity led Whites to become racist, stringent and discriminatory towards the enslaved Africans. Although the former group of scholars asserts that, â€Å"the development of a form of slavery, which left a caste in its wake, cannot be attributed to pressure from increasing numbers of blacks, or even from an insistent demand for cheap labor†, the latter group justifies the very statement as truth. The reason for the increased discrimination and control comes from the fact that unlike before, the Europeans grew more than ever ambitious with Africa as a trading partner which would be used to amass great wealth. Kathleen Brown, who argues that slavery preceded racism, asserts that there is a fundamental problem in viewing the idea of ‘race’ in the context of just appearances. She asserts that often historians perceive â€Å"race as a biological fact rather than as an ongoing historical and cultural construction †¦ When legal, literary, and mercantile discourses of race are examined along with actual practices of coerced labor, the relationship between slavery and racism becomes much more complicated, defying our efforts to designate one as a cause of the other. † Brown attaches the concept of historical construction to define race in order to undo the myth of causality which states that racism preceded slavery. Her stance is agreeable because even if one considers Whites to be innately racist, one cannot deny that there could be more motivation and incentives, apart from racism, to practice slavery. Moreover, a racial identity, according to Kathleen Brown and Winthrop Jordon, is created from factors like socio-economic structures and not just phenotype. Thus racism was not the root cause of slavery. Hence the racial discrimination of the Negros and their consequential enslavement was merely a ‘means’ to achieve the ‘end’ of White objectives of economic growth was possible by enlisting more productive labor. This assumption can be verified because slavery in America did not begin until the end of seventeenth century when in fact, the Africans were brought as early as 1619. Edmund Morgan explains that the reason behind this delay in enslaving Africans, was the â€Å"high mortality among immigrants to Virginia† This made the white indentured slaves more advantageous as compared to black slave labor because they were less expensive with low mortality rate. According to Oscar and Mary F. Handlin, the black slaves were in fact undesired by the colonists. The costs of hiring Black slaves were higher because they were unskilled and ran the risks of mortality, escape and rebellion. This ideology clearly reflects that the motive of the colonist was only to maximize their profits and grow more as a powerful entity by effectively controlling the colonized. Hence, they were able to maximize productivity successfully by keeping whites as servants. The need for black slaves grew much later and racism was born out of legalizing slavery. The racist and discriminatory mentality that developed is evident in the laws that the English established after 1660s. These laws were the methods and ways to control the blacks and subjugate them to a lower social status. The 1668 statute was an important event in the creation of a distinctive legal meaning for Negro in America. This law took away the freedom of every ‘black’ slave by subjecting them to life-long slave tenure. Kathleen Brown explains that this law was especially discriminatory for women because all black women were asked to pay the taxes, irrespective of their status as free or enslaved. The consequence of the law created social power structures and racial identities. The free African men found it more desirable to marry white women in order to escape tax liability of their wives and daughters, and in turn, gain a status quo equal to whites. As a result a new racial demarcation was established. In contrast to English women, African women were presumed capable of and naturally suited to strenuous field work. This not only lowered the status of Negros, but also set an exclusive definition of what it meant to be white, reflective of their power and status. Racialization is evidenced in many other laws that were established in the 1660s stipulating a similar idea. The statute of 1662, made a bold attempt to naturalize the condition of slavery by making it heritable and embedding in it a concept of race . This law made the paternity of a child born from enslaved women to be irrelevant, in turn leaving the enslaved women as a â€Å"productive and reproductive property† of their masters. This also ensured the availability of slaves, as the enslaved women could only give birth to slaves. Along with this, many laws subjected the slaves to lifetime bondage by utilizing religion. One could view this law as a representation of the innately racist idea that Negros were heathen and needed Christianity to become civilized. However this law can also be perceived as an opportunity through which the Whites used the concept of ‘religion’ to control and produce more slave population. The law passed in 1667, legalized the meaning of Christianity and stated that baptism cannot be used as a way to free oneself from slavery. The Christian commission declared that, â€Å"the conferring of baptisme doth not alter the condition of the person as to his bondage or freedom. † This law demarcated Christians from non-Christians and distinguished ‘slaves’ from ‘servants’. Kathleen Brown holds the colonist responsible to create a division of race by incorporating slavery. She asserts that, â€Å"they created a legal discourse of slavery rooted in sexual, social, and economic lives of African laborers and effectively naturalized the condition of slavery by connecting it to a concept of race. The arguments by Kathleen Brown, Edmund Morgan and Oscar and Mary F. Handlin state that the colonists established the concept of race by legalizing slavery. Although neither side presents a view that is wrong, they are only partially correct. The problem is in the assumption that the authors make in forming these arguments. Their arguments are reflective of a desire to ‘fit’ the hi story of North America into a system of causality where either racism preceded slavery or vice versa. In history, one cannot deny the occurrence of events but their interpretations, meanings and the inferences drawn from them can differ drastically. Likewise, although no scholar denies that racism and slavery existed in the 17th century America, nonetheless, the debate revolves around the issue of precedence of the two. In reality, the history of North America is a complex structure which cannot be divided into these two binaries but rather should be seen as the point of intersection the two realms of racism and the laws that the Whites enforced are superimposed on each other. The diagram below is a graphical attempt to illustrate the idea better. It is almost impossible to define one as a cause of another and the thus the only way to understand the complex social and economic structure of North America is to interpret it as an era where the simultaneity of racial ideology and slavery induced through decree existed. Thus, white supremacy was not simply a summary of color prejudices; it was also a set of political programs, differing according to the social position of their proponents. While on one hand, the established statute manipulated power structures to establish racial identities, on the other hand Barbara Fields asserts that â€Å"race became the ideological medium through which people posed and apprehended basic questions of power and dominance, sovereignty and citizenship, justice and right. †. The two components of racism and economic prosperity interacted in a way where they meshed together to give rise to slavery. Hence, there is no way to validate the precedence of one over the other when in fact they developed simultaneously and had a continuous influence on each other together.

Exercise in Using the Correct Forms of Irregular Verbs

Exercise in Using the Correct Forms of Irregular Verbs This exercise will give you practice in using the correct forms of irregular verbs. Before attempting the exercise, you may find it helpful to review these two articles: Introduction to Irregular VerbsPrincipal Parts of Irregular Verbs Exercise Complete each sentence below with the appropriate present, past, or past-participle form of the irregular verb in italics. When youre done, compare your answers with those below. Uncle Bert told me he had _____ (sell) his car for one dollar to a needy family.No one answered when Freddie _____ (ring) the doorbell.We nearly _____ (freeze) our toes off in a bedroom that wasnt heated.Jessica suddenly remembered that a week ago she had _____ (lend) her brother a hundred dollars.My sister left the birthday party early because she had _____ (drink) too much Coca Cola and made herself sick.Last Sunday morning we discovered that the old boiler had _____ (spring) a leak.John went to the blackboard and _____ (draw) a picture of the playground.Dont call the world dirty because you _____ (forget) to clean your glasses.Jobie had _____ (string) a clothesline from the top of the trailer to the woodshed eaves.The group had _____ (begin) to split up into cliques and factions.Buddy had never _____ (ride) in a limousine before.Habit is a cable; we _____ (weave) a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it. (Horace Mann)The paper reported that a major earthquake had __ ___ (shake) the interior of Mexico, killing thousands. When we were five years old, Mike and I solemnly _____ (swear) to remain friends forever.Moira had _____ (mean) to send her father a birthday card, but as usual she forgot.The force of the shock from the explosion _____ (break) every window in the old school building.Uncle Bert had _____ (go) to the post office at lunchtime but never came back.Trying to be good Samaritans had _____ (bring) us nothing but trouble.The student insisted that someone had _____ (steal) his sunglasses, but everyone could see that they were still sitting on top of his head.Walt Disney claimed that he loved Mickey Mouse more than any woman he had ever _____ (know). Answers   Uncle Bert told me he had  sold  his car for one dollar to a needy family.No one answered when Freddie  rang  the doorbell.We nearly  froze  our toes off in a bedroom that wasnt heated.Jessica suddenly remembered that a week ago she had  lent  her brother a hundred dollars.My sister left the birthday party early because she had  drunk  too much Coca Cola and made herself sick.Last Sunday morning we discovered that the old boiler had  sprung  a leak.John went to the blackboard and  drew  a picture of the playground.Dont call the world dirty because you  forgot  to clean your glasses.Jobie had  strung  a clothesline from the top of the trailer to the woodshed eaves.The group had  begun  to split up into cliques and factions.Buddy had never  ridden  in a limousine before.Habit is a cable; we  weave  a thread of it each day, and at last we cannot break it. (Horace Mann)The paper reported that a major earthquake had  shaken  the interior of Mexico, killing thousands.When we were five years old, Mike and I solemnly  swore  to remain friends forever. Moira had  meant  to send her father a birthday card, but as  usual  she forgot.The force of the shock from the explosion  broke  every window in the old school building.Uncle Bert had  gone  to the post office at lunchtime but never came back.Trying to be good Samaritans had  brought  us nothing but trouble.The student insisted that someone had  stolen  his sunglasses, but everyone could see that they were still sitting on top of his head.Walt Disney claimed that he loved Mickey Mouse more than any woman he had ever  known